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Technologies

The technologies behind connectivity.

Every technology this platform builds with, layer by layer, from the open taxonomy. Marked in red: what is moving now, each traced to its source.

Plan with us Architecture

Areas · 7 Technologies · 424 Industries · 21

01The layered map

Layer by layer, from the open taxonomy.

Each domain this platform draws on, with its layers and the technologies in each. Open a layer for what each technology does and the standard behind it.

5G and 6G radio access networks

The radio access network from site to spectrum: macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters, massive MIMO, NR bands and TDD synchronisation, NR features such as RedCap, positioning and sidelink, private and shared networks, Wi-Fi coexistence, 6G and ISAC, and the planning and assurance that keep it working.

The full directory →

Macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters

Technologies · 9

Macro sites
Small cells
Distributed antenna systems
Repeaters and network-controlled repeaters
Integrated access and backhaul
Public-safety in-building coverage
Rapid-deploy and transportable cells
Site engineering and structures
RF exposure assessment

Massive MIMO and beamforming

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 2

Massive MIMO active antenna systems
Beam management
CSI feedback and codebooks
Multi-user and uplink MIMO
Passive and multiband antennas
Distributed and cell-free MIMO
Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces

NR bands, duplexing and synchronisation

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 2

FR1 mid-band TDD (n77, n78)
FR1 low-band FDD
FR2 millimetre wave (n257, n258, n260, n261)
FR2-2 (52.6–71 GHz)
Upper 6 GHz and 7–8 GHz candidate bands
TDD frame alignment and inter-operator synchronisation
Carrier aggregation and dual connectivity
Dynamic spectrum sharing
NR in unlicensed spectrum (NR-U)

NR features: RedCap, positioning, sidelink and verticals

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

RedCap and enhanced RedCap
NR positioning
Sidelink (PC5)
Sidelink positioning and ranging
URLLC and industrial IoT
NR multicast and broadcast
Support for aerial devices
Mission-critical services
Ambient IoT

Private networks and RAN sharing

Technologies · 7

Standalone non-public networks (SNPN)
Public network integrated NPN (PNI-NPN)
Neutral host networks
RAN sharing (MORAN and MOCN)
Industrial 5G LAN and TSN integration
Shared and local spectrum for private networks
Private network onboarding and identity

Wi-Fi coexistence and convergence

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

Wi-Fi 6E (IEEE 802.11ax in 6 GHz)
Wi-Fi 7 (IEEE 802.11be)
Automated frequency coordination
NR-U and Wi-Fi coexistence
Wi-Fi integration with the 5G core
Multi-access traffic steering (ATSSS)
Wi-Fi sensing
Ultra-high reliability Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi 8)

6G and integrated sensing and communication

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 7

IMT-2030 framework
3GPP 6G studies
Integrated sensing and communication (ISAC)
AI-native air interface
Sub-terahertz links
Ubiquitous terrestrial and non-terrestrial coverage
Energy-efficient and sustainable 6G

RAN planning, optimisation and assurance

Technologies · 6

Radio planning and propagation modelling
Drive testing and minimisation of drive tests
Self-organising networks
Performance measurement and KPIs
Base station and device conformance testing
Licence conditions and coverage reporting

AI-RAN and Open RAN

Disaggregated, software-defined and AI-assisted radio access: the O-RAN architecture and its open interfaces, 7.2x fronthaul, RAN intelligent controllers with xApps and rApps, SMO and O-Cloud, accelerated L1, shared GPU infrastructure for RAN and AI, AI/ML in the 3GPP air interface, energy saving, and the test and integration work that makes multi-supplier RAN deployable.

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O-RAN architecture and open interfaces

Technologies · 7

O-RAN reference architecture
O-RU (radio unit)
O-DU (distributed unit)
O-CU (central unit, CP and UP)
Open F1, E1, X2 and Xn interoperability
Shared O-RU and multi-operator Open RAN
Deployment scenarios and white-box hardware

Fronthaul (7.2x split) and transport

Technologies · 8

7.2x lower-layer split, CUS-Plane
Fronthaul management plane
eCPRI and radio over Ethernet
Time-sensitive networking for fronthaul
Fronthaul synchronisation topologies (LLS-C1 to C4)
Fronthaul security
Fronthaul multiplexers and gateways
Xhaul packet-switched transport

RAN intelligent controllers, xApps and rApps

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

Near-real-time RIC and E2
E2 service models
xApps
Non-real-time RIC and A1
rApps and the R1 interface
Conflict mitigation between applications
RIC use cases
Real-time control at the DU (dApps)

SMO, O-Cloud and accelerated L1

Technologies · 8

Service management and orchestration (SMO)
O1 management interface
O-Cloud and the O2 interface
Cloud-native RAN functions
Acceleration abstraction layer (AAL)
Channel coding and FEC offload
Timing in the O-Cloud
Continuous integration and delivery for RAN software

AI-RAN: shared accelerated infrastructure

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 5

AI-for-RAN
AI-and-RAN (shared GPU for RAN and AI)
AI-on-RAN (edge AI services on RAN sites)
Software-defined L1 on GPUs
RAN-first workload scheduling
Isolation between RAN and AI tenants
AI-RAN site power and cooling

AI/ML in the air interface and network management

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

AI/ML for CSI feedback
AI/ML beam management
AI/ML positioning
AI/ML for NG-RAN functions
AI/ML model lifecycle management
Network data analytics
O-RAN AI/ML workflow
5G system support for AI/ML applications

Energy saving and efficiency

Technologies · 6

Network energy saving features
Carrier and cell switch-off by policy
Base station energy measurement
Network energy efficiency KPIs
Site power systems
Massive MIMO and power amplifier optimisation

Testing, integration and security

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

Open testing and integration centre labs
Conformance testing
Interoperability testing
End-to-end performance testing
RAN security testing
RF and channel emulation
RAN digital twins
Software supply chain for RAN

Core and transport networks

The networks behind the radio: the 5G core and its functions, slicing and edge breakout, IMS voice and emergency calling, fronthaul, midhaul and backhaul over microwave, E-band, fibre, free-space optics and satellite, IP/MPLS and segment routing, IPv6, automation and intent, and the security that holds it together.

The full directory →

5G core functions

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1

Access and mobility management (AMF)
Session management (SMF)
User plane function (UPF) and N4
Service-based architecture and NRF
Policy control (PCF)
Subscriber data and authentication (UDM, AUSF, UDR)
Network exposure (NEF) and network APIs
Location services (LMF)
Roaming and interconnect security (SEPP)
6G core architecture studies

Network slicing, edge UPF and local breakout

Technologies · 8

Slice selection and identifiers
Slice management and orchestration
Slice templates
Transport network slicing
Edge UPF, uplink classifier and branching point
Local breakout and local area data networks
Edge application enablement
Slice and service assurance

IMS, voice and mission-critical services

Technologies · 6

IMS core
Voice over NR and voice over LTE
Emergency calling and next-generation 9-1-1
Mission-critical push-to-talk, video and data
Messaging and SMS over 5G
Voice and messaging over satellite

Fronthaul, midhaul and backhaul

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

Transport requirements for 5G xhaul
Carrier Ethernet mobile backhaul
Licensed microwave (6–42 GHz)
E-band (71–76 and 81–86 GHz)
D-band and W-band radio
Free-space optics
Satellite backhaul for RAN
Aerial relays for backhaul

Fibre and optical transport

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

Single-mode fibre plant
Passive optical networks
DWDM and ROADM networks
Optical transport network (OTN)
Coherent pluggable optics
High-speed Ethernet interfaces
Outside plant for northern and remote builds
Distributed fibre sensing

IP/MPLS, segment routing, SD-WAN and IPv6

Technologies · 8

MPLS and VPN services
Segment routing over MPLS
SRv6
Traffic engineering and path computation
SD-WAN
IPv6 and transition mechanisms
Deterministic networking
Routing security

Network automation and intent

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 1

Model-driven management
Streaming telemetry and flow export
Intent-based management
Zero-touch service management
Closed-loop assurance
Autonomous network levels
Network digital twins

Core security and resilience

Technologies · 5 · Frontier · 1

5G security architecture
Security assurance of network products
Zero trust architecture
Restoration and geo-redundancy
Post-quantum cryptography migration

Satellite and space systems

The space segment end to end: orbits and constellations, spacecraft buses, communications and Earth observation payloads, inter-satellite links, tracking and command, space safety, launch, and the licensing and filings that let a system operate over a site.

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Orbits and constellations

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

LEO broadband constellations
MEO constellations
GEO high-throughput satellites
HEO (Molniya and Tundra-type) orbits
Sun-synchronous and polar orbits for EO
Constellation design and coverage analysis
HAPS and HIBS stratospheric platforms
Very low Earth orbit (VLEO)

Spacecraft buses and platforms

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

Smallsat and CubeSat platforms
Electrical power subsystems
Attitude and orbit control
Propulsion (chemical, electric, low-toxicity)
On-board data handling and avionics buses
Thermal control and structures
Radiation effects and EEE parts
Environmental verification
Flight software and software-defined satellites

Communications payloads, NTN and direct-to-device

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 3

Transparent (bent-pipe) payloads
Regenerative payloads and on-board processing
Multibeam and digitally beamformed payloads
5G NR over satellite (NR-NTN)
IoT over satellite (NB-IoT and LTE-M NTN)
Direct-to-device in mobile bands
Mobile satellite services in L and S band
Store-and-forward satellite IoT
Satellite broadcast and multicast

Inter-satellite and space-to-ground links

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 4

RF inter-satellite links
Optical inter-satellite links
Optical space-to-ground links
Pointing, acquisition and tracking
Space networking and delay-tolerant routing
GEO data relay for LEO missions
Space-based quantum key distribution

Earth observation payload classes

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1

Multispectral optical imagers
Hyperspectral imagers
Synthetic aperture radar (X, C, L band)
Thermal infrared and fire detection
Atmospheric and greenhouse gas sounders
GNSS radio occultation and reflectometry
Space-based AIS and ADS-B reception
RF spectrum sensing from orbit
Lidar and radar altimetry
On-board processing and AI for EO

Tracking, telemetry and command and space safety

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

TT&C radio links
Telemetry and telecommand protocols
Ranging and orbit determination
Space link security
Conjunction assessment and collision avoidance
Space situational awareness sensing
Space weather monitoring
Debris mitigation and end-of-life disposal
Rendezvous, proximity operations and on-orbit servicing

Launch, licensing and regulation

Technologies · 8

Launch and rideshare integration
ITU filings: advance publication, coordination, notification
NGSO–GSO sharing and EPFD
Landing rights and market access
Remote sensing licensing
International space law and registration
Export controls for space items
Space sustainability frameworks

Frontier and research

Technologies · 6 · Frontier · 6

6G integrated terrestrial and non-terrestrial networks
Orbital edge computing
Lunar and cislunar communications and navigation
Autonomous constellation operations
Space-based solar power
In-space assembly and manufacturing

Ground segment

Everything on the ground that talks to spacecraft: gateways and teleports, user terminals, modems and software-defined radio, shared antenna networks, CCSDS protocol stacks, mission control, data processing and the spectrum coordination behind each earth station.

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Gateways and teleports

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

NGSO gateway sites
GEO teleports and hub earth stations
RF chain: LNA, LNB, BUC and high-power amplifiers
Site diversity and rain-fade mitigation
Adaptive coding and modulation
Teleport facilities, power and lightning protection
Gateway-to-core interconnection
Optical ground stations

User terminals

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

Electronically steered flat-panel terminals
Parabolic VSAT terminals
Maritime terminals
Aeronautical terminals
Land-mobile and communications-on-the-move
IoT and low-power satellite terminals
Multi-orbit and hybrid terrestrial terminals
Terminal installation and electrical safety
Handheld and smartphone satellite access

Baseband, modems and software-defined radio

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

DVB-S2 and DVB-S2X forward links
DVB-RCS2 return links
CCSDS modulation and channel coding
Software-defined radio platforms
Digital IF and RF-over-IP
Virtualised and cloud-native modems
Carrier identification
NTN gNB and core functions at gateways

Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks

Technologies · 7

Shared antenna networks
Space link extension services
Pass scheduling and resource management
High-latitude and polar ground sites
Ground segment cybersecurity
Federated and hybrid ground networks
Data delivery to cloud and edge

CCSDS protocol stacks

Technologies · 9

Synchronisation and channel coding
Space data link protocols
Space packets and encapsulation
File delivery
Delay and disruption tolerant networking
Space data link security
Telemetry and command databases
Navigation data messages
Data compression

Mission control and flight dynamics

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 1

Mission control systems
Flight dynamics
Constellation operations automation
Payload planning and tasking
Anomaly detection and spacecraft health analytics
Operations security and access control
Operational simulators and digital twins

Data downlink, processing and distribution

Technologies · 8

Level-0 to Level-2 processing chains
Analysis-ready data production
Catalogues and discovery
Cloud-native geospatial formats
Calibration and validation
Low-latency tasking-to-delivery pipelines
Data licensing and access control
Processing at the antenna edge

Earth station spectrum coordination and interference

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 1

Earth station licensing and coordination
NGSO–GSO interference analysis
Propagation modelling
Interference detection and geolocation
Cross-border coordination
Protection of radio astronomy and science services
Satellite and terrestrial spectrum sharing

Spectrum, timing and PNT

The shared foundations every network and sensor depends on: how spectrum is licensed, shared and monitored, GNSS positioning and its corrections, packet timing with PTP and SyncE, grandmasters and holdover, resilient PNT alternatives, and the detection of interference, jamming and spoofing.

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Spectrum regimes and access

Technologies · 9

Exclusive licensed spectrum
Tiered shared access (CBRS-type)
Local and light licensing
Licence-exempt bands
TV white space and database-controlled access
Spectrum for fixed links
Spectrum for satellite services
Spectrum for science and passive sensing
Spectrum leasing and subordination

Spectrum monitoring and interference management

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

Fixed, transportable and mobile monitoring stations
Spectrum occupancy measurement
Emitter location (TDOA and angle of arrival)
Interference investigation and reporting
Distributed low-cost SDR sensor networks
Passive intermodulation and site noise
Machine-learning signal classification
Satellite carrier interference detection

GNSS positioning and augmentation

Technologies · 9

Multi-constellation, multi-frequency receivers
RTK networks and NTRIP
PPP and PPP-RTK
Satellite-based augmentation (SBAS)
Ground-based augmentation (GBAS)
Geodetic reference frames
Assisted GNSS in cellular networks
Reference stations and GNSS data formats
Navigation message authentication

Packet timing: PTP, SyncE and NTP

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1

Precision Time Protocol
Telecom profile with full timing support
Telecom profile with partial timing support
Frequency synchronisation profile
Synchronous Ethernet and enhanced SyncE
Time and phase network limits
Industry PTP profiles
Sub-nanosecond timing (high-accuracy profile)
NTP and Network Time Security
Timing protocol security

Grandmasters, reference clocks and holdover

Technologies · 7

PRTC and enhanced PRTC
Primary reference clocks for frequency
Atomic and quartz oscillators
Holdover design
Timing performance monitoring
Traceability to national time scales
Edge and distributed grandmasters

Resilient PNT

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 3

Resilient PNT frameworks
Terrestrial radionavigation (eLoran-type)
Time over fibre
Terrestrial beacon systems
5G as a timing source
Inertial and multi-sensor navigation
LEO PNT
Optical clocks and quantum navigation sensors
Signals-of-opportunity navigation

Interference, jamming and spoofing detection

Technologies · 7

GNSS interference monitoring
Spoofing detection
Jammer location to support enforcement
Timing anomaly detection
Interference-resistant antennas
Aviation and maritime GNSS disruption awareness
Red line: no jamming or spoofing capability

IoT, LPWAN and mesh

The radios, networks, gateways, device management and field protocols that connect low-power sensors and controllers to the grid, sized to a measured power budget.

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