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Every technology this platform builds with, layer by layer, from the open taxonomy. Marked in red: what is moving now, each traced to its source.

Areas · 6 Technologies · 253 Industries · 3

Specification

Take the station apart.

Every part is a class we source, wire and test before the station ships. Select a part in the drawing or a row of the sheet and the other follows. Switch on Dimensions to measure it.

01The layered map

Layer by layer, from the open taxonomy.

Each domain this platform draws on, with its layers and the technologies in each. Open a layer for what each technology does and the standard behind it.

AI systems

AI from model to accountable operation: edge inference and model optimisation, foundation models for Earth observation and geospatial work, time-series and sensor AI, multimodal fusion and supervised agentic operations, federated and privacy-preserving learning, physical AI and robotics within stated red lines, MLOps, evaluation and model risk, and the governance frameworks that apply to each.

Edge inference, model serving and optimisation

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 15

• Embedded and on-device inference
• Edge server inference
• Quantisation
• Distillation, pruning and sparsity
• Compilers and runtimes
• Serving: batching, caching and scheduling
• Parameter-efficient fine-tuning
• Energy-aware inference
• Split and collaborative inference
• Safety-related inference

Foundation models for Earth observation and geospatial

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 3 · Standards · 11

• EO foundation models
• Training data and labels
• Land cover and change detection
• Hazard and exposure mapping
• SAR interferometry and deformation analysis
• Geospatial embeddings and similarity search
• Super-resolution and gap filling
• AI weather and climate emulators
• Geospatial model metadata

Time-series and sensor AI

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 12

• Anomaly detection on sensor streams
• Forecasting and nowcasting
• Predictive maintenance
• Sensor quality control and drift correction
• Seismic and acoustic event detection
• Hydrological time series
• Network telemetry analytics
• Virtual and soft sensors

Multimodal fusion and agentic operations

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 3 · Standards · 13

• Multisensor fusion
• Geospatial knowledge graphs
• Retrieval and grounding on governed data
• Supervised agentic operations
• Intent-driven operations
• Tool permissions and action limits
• Digital twins of sites and networks

Federated and privacy-preserving learning

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 9

• Federated learning across sites
• Federated learning in 5G systems
• Differential privacy
• Secure aggregation and multiparty computation
• De-identification
• ML in future networks framework
• Synthetic data

Physical AI and robotics (within red lines)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 2 · Standards · 13

• Drones for site survey and sensor placement
• Inspection robots for sites and facilities
• Collaborative robots
• Functional safety of AI-enabled machines
• Simulation and sim-to-real transfer
• Embodied foundation models
• Red lines: no weapons, targeting or unlawful tracking

MLOps

Technologies · 7 · Standards · 11

• AI system lifecycle processes
• Data quality management
• Experiment tracking and reproducibility
• Continuous training and deployment to edge fleets
• Drift and performance monitoring
• Model and dataset bills of materials
• Model provenance and signing

Evaluation, model risk and AI governance

Technologies · 10 · Standards · 19

• Performance evaluation
• Robustness testing
• Bias assessment
• Adversarial testing and red-teaming
• Uncertainty and calibration reporting
• Model risk management
• AI management system
• AI risk management
• AI impact assessment
• Regulatory and policy alignment

AI-RAN and Open RAN

Disaggregated, software-defined and AI-assisted radio access: the O-RAN architecture and its open interfaces, 7.2x fronthaul, RAN intelligent controllers with xApps and rApps, SMO and O-Cloud, accelerated L1, shared GPU infrastructure for RAN and AI, AI/ML in the 3GPP air interface, energy saving, and the test and integration work that makes multi-supplier RAN deployable.

O-RAN architecture and open interfaces

Technologies · 7 · Standards · 11

• O-RAN reference architecture
• O-RU (radio unit)
• O-DU (distributed unit)
• O-CU (central unit, CP and UP)
• Open F1, E1, X2 and Xn interoperability
• Shared O-RU and multi-operator Open RAN
• Deployment scenarios and white-box hardware

Fronthaul (7.2x split) and transport

Technologies · 8 · Standards · 13

• 7.2x lower-layer split, CUS-Plane
• Fronthaul management plane
• eCPRI and radio over Ethernet
• Time-sensitive networking for fronthaul
• Fronthaul synchronisation topologies (LLS-C1 to C4)
• Fronthaul security
• Fronthaul multiplexers and gateways
• Xhaul packet-switched transport

RAN intelligent controllers, xApps and rApps

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 11

• Near-real-time RIC and E2
• E2 service models
• xApps
• Non-real-time RIC and A1
• rApps and the R1 interface
• Conflict mitigation between applications
• RIC use cases
• Real-time control at the DU (dApps)

SMO, O-Cloud and accelerated L1

Technologies · 8 · Standards · 14

• Service management and orchestration (SMO)
• O1 management interface
• O-Cloud and the O2 interface
• Cloud-native RAN functions
• Acceleration abstraction layer (AAL)
• Channel coding and FEC offload
• Timing in the O-Cloud
• Continuous integration and delivery for RAN software

AI-RAN: shared accelerated infrastructure

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 5 · Standards · 12

• AI-for-RAN
• AI-and-RAN (shared GPU for RAN and AI)
• AI-on-RAN (edge AI services on RAN sites)
• Software-defined L1 on GPUs
• RAN-first workload scheduling
• Isolation between RAN and AI tenants
• AI-RAN site power and cooling

AI/ML in the air interface and network management

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 12

• AI/ML for CSI feedback
• AI/ML beam management
• AI/ML positioning
• AI/ML for NG-RAN functions
• AI/ML model lifecycle management
• Network data analytics
• O-RAN AI/ML workflow
• 5G system support for AI/ML applications

Energy saving and efficiency

Technologies · 6 · Standards · 10

• Network energy saving features
• Carrier and cell switch-off by policy
• Base station energy measurement
• Network energy efficiency KPIs
• Site power systems
• Massive MIMO and power amplifier optimisation

Testing, integration and security

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 13

• Open testing and integration centre labs
• Conformance testing
• Interoperability testing
• End-to-end performance testing
• RAN security testing
• RF and channel emulation
• RAN digital twins
• Software supply chain for RAN

Satellite and space systems

The space segment end to end: orbits and constellations, spacecraft buses, communications and Earth observation payloads, inter-satellite links, tracking and command, space safety, launch, and the licensing and filings that let a system operate over a site.

Orbits and constellations

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2 · Standards · 12

• LEO broadband constellations
• MEO constellations
• GEO high-throughput satellites
• HEO (Molniya and Tundra-type) orbits
• Sun-synchronous and polar orbits for EO
• Constellation design and coverage analysis
• HAPS and HIBS stratospheric platforms
• Very low Earth orbit (VLEO)

Spacecraft buses and platforms

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 17

• Smallsat and CubeSat platforms
• Electrical power subsystems
• Attitude and orbit control
• Propulsion (chemical, electric, low-toxicity)
• On-board data handling and avionics buses
• Thermal control and structures
• Radiation effects and EEE parts
• Environmental verification
• Flight software and software-defined satellites

Communications payloads, NTN and direct-to-device

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 3 · Standards · 17

• Transparent (bent-pipe) payloads
• Regenerative payloads and on-board processing
• Multibeam and digitally beamformed payloads
• 5G NR over satellite (NR-NTN)
• IoT over satellite (NB-IoT and LTE-M NTN)
• Direct-to-device in mobile bands
• Mobile satellite services in L and S band
• Store-and-forward satellite IoT
• Satellite broadcast and multicast

Inter-satellite and space-to-ground links

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 4 · Standards · 12

• RF inter-satellite links
• Optical inter-satellite links
• Optical space-to-ground links
• Pointing, acquisition and tracking
• Space networking and delay-tolerant routing
• GEO data relay for LEO missions
• Space-based quantum key distribution

Earth observation payload classes

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 16

• Multispectral optical imagers
• Hyperspectral imagers
• Synthetic aperture radar (X, C, L band)
• Thermal infrared and fire detection
• Atmospheric and greenhouse gas sounders
• GNSS radio occultation and reflectometry
• Space-based AIS and ADS-B reception
• RF spectrum sensing from orbit
• Lidar and radar altimetry
• On-board processing and AI for EO

Tracking, telemetry and command and space safety

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 17

• TT&C radio links
• Telemetry and telecommand protocols
• Ranging and orbit determination
• Space link security
• Conjunction assessment and collision avoidance
• Space situational awareness sensing
• Space weather monitoring
• Debris mitigation and end-of-life disposal
• Rendezvous, proximity operations and on-orbit servicing

Launch, licensing and regulation

Technologies · 8 · Standards · 18

• Launch and rideshare integration
• ITU filings: advance publication, coordination, notification
• NGSO–GSO sharing and EPFD
• Landing rights and market access
• Remote sensing licensing
• International space law and registration
• Export controls for space items
• Space sustainability frameworks

Frontier and research

Technologies · 6 · Frontier · 6 · Standards · 10

• 6G integrated terrestrial and non-terrestrial networks
• Orbital edge computing
• Lunar and cislunar communications and navigation
• Autonomous constellation operations
• Space-based solar power
• In-space assembly and manufacturing

5G and 6G radio access networks

The radio access network from site to spectrum: macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters, massive MIMO, NR bands and TDD synchronisation, NR features such as RedCap, positioning and sidelink, private and shared networks, Wi-Fi coexistence, 6G and ISAC, and the planning and assurance that keep it working.

Macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters

Technologies · 9 · Standards · 19

• Macro sites
• Small cells
• Distributed antenna systems
• Repeaters and network-controlled repeaters
• Integrated access and backhaul
• Public-safety in-building coverage
• Rapid-deploy and transportable cells
• Site engineering and structures
• RF exposure assessment

Massive MIMO and beamforming

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 2 · Standards · 9

• Massive MIMO active antenna systems
• Beam management
• CSI feedback and codebooks
• Multi-user and uplink MIMO
• Passive and multiband antennas
• Distributed and cell-free MIMO
• Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces

NR bands, duplexing and synchronisation

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 2 · Standards · 15

• FR1 mid-band TDD (n77, n78)
• FR1 low-band FDD
• FR2 millimetre wave (n257, n258, n260, n261)
• FR2-2 (52.6–71 GHz)
• Upper 6 GHz and 7–8 GHz candidate bands
• TDD frame alignment and inter-operator synchronisation
• Carrier aggregation and dual connectivity
• Dynamic spectrum sharing
• NR in unlicensed spectrum (NR-U)

NR features: RedCap, positioning, sidelink and verticals

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1 · Standards · 18

• RedCap and enhanced RedCap
• NR positioning
• Sidelink (PC5)
• Sidelink positioning and ranging
• URLLC and industrial IoT
• NR multicast and broadcast
• Support for aerial devices
• Mission-critical services
• Ambient IoT

Private networks and RAN sharing

Technologies · 7 · Standards · 12

• Standalone non-public networks (SNPN)
• Public network integrated NPN (PNI-NPN)
• Neutral host networks
• RAN sharing (MORAN and MOCN)
• Industrial 5G LAN and TSN integration
• Shared and local spectrum for private networks
• Private network onboarding and identity

Wi-Fi coexistence and convergence

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2 · Standards · 12

• Wi-Fi 6E (IEEE 802.11ax in 6 GHz)
• Wi-Fi 7 (IEEE 802.11be)
• Automated frequency coordination
• NR-U and Wi-Fi coexistence
• Wi-Fi integration with the 5G core
• Multi-access traffic steering (ATSSS)
• Wi-Fi sensing
• Ultra-high reliability Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi 8)

6G and integrated sensing and communication

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 7 · Standards · 8

• IMT-2030 framework
• 3GPP 6G studies
• Integrated sensing and communication (ISAC)
• AI-native air interface
• Sub-terahertz links
• Ubiquitous terrestrial and non-terrestrial coverage
• Energy-efficient and sustainable 6G

RAN planning, optimisation and assurance

Technologies · 6 · Standards · 11

• Radio planning and propagation modelling
• Drive testing and minimisation of drive tests
• Self-organising networks
• Performance measurement and KPIs
• Base station and device conformance testing
• Licence conditions and coverage reporting

02Across the network

The whole spectrum, on the main site.

03On this site

Where to go next.

Bring us the site.

We bring the survey, the design and the crew. The form names who receives your details.

More presentations

See it from every side.

Each opens as a full-screen presentation: deeper pages on the same subject, explainers, stories, guided tours of the places, network scenes and the observatories that came before.

In depth

Explainers