{"id":21,"date":"2026-11-02T11:40:40","date_gmt":"2026-11-02T11:40:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/observatory.global\/sensors\/explainer\/"},"modified":"2026-11-02T11:43:36","modified_gmt":"2026-11-02T11:43:36","slug":"explainer","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/observatory.global\/sensors\/explainer\/","title":{"rendered":"Sensors &#038; instruments: explainer"},"content":{"rendered":"<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/kit-fonts.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/kit.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/i18n.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/chrome.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/x1.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/system\/3d\/3d.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/view-x-sensors.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<div class=\"nxo-view\" data-nxo-view=\"x-sensors\" data-nxo-bundle=\"99e42e7aa6ec\"><div class=\"nxo-ssr\" data-nxo-snap> <main><section><p>Class 1 \u00b7 100 m<\/p><p>Class 2 \u00b7 30 m<\/p><p>Class 3 \u00b7 10 m<\/p><p>Class 4 \u00b7 3 m<\/p><p>24 m \u00b7 <b>class 3<\/b><\/p><p>0 min<\/p><p>60 min<\/p><p>120 min<\/p><p>180 min<\/p><p>-10 \u00b0C<\/p><p>0 \u00b0C<\/p><p>10 \u00b0C<\/p><p>20 \u00b0C<\/p><p>30 \u00b0C<\/p><p><b>Logger<\/b> \u00b7 1-min air temperature<\/p><p><b>76<\/b> flagged<\/p><p><b>SI kelvin \u00b7 ITS-90<\/b><\/p><p><b>National metrology institute<\/b><\/p><p><b>Accredited laboratory<\/b><\/p><p><b>Field reference<\/b><\/p><p><b>Station sensor<\/b><\/p><p>U 0.040 \u00b0C<\/p><p>U 0.057 \u00b0C<\/p><p>U 0.101 \u00b0C<\/p><p>1 \u00b7 Observed variable<\/p><p>2 \u00b7 Purpose of observation<\/p><p>3 \u00b7 Station\/platform<\/p><p>4 \u00b7 Environment<\/p><p>5 \u00b7 Instruments and methods<\/p><p>6 \u00b7 Sampling<\/p><p>7 \u00b7 Data processing and reporting<\/p><p>8 \u00b7 Data quality<\/p><p>9 \u00b7 Ownership and data policy<\/p><p>10 \u00b7 Contact<\/p><p>0 km<\/p><p>50 km<\/p><p>100 km<\/p><p>150 km<\/p><p>200 km<\/p><p>5 km<\/p><p>10 km<\/p><p>15 km<\/p><p>0.5\u00b0 \u00b7 <b>1.5 km<\/b><\/p><p><b>P<\/b><\/p><p><b>S<\/b><\/p><p>30 s \u00b7 100 sps<\/p><p>0 dbar<\/p><p>1,000 dbar<\/p><p>2,000 dbar<\/p><p>Ascent \u00b7 <b>5.5 h<\/b><\/p><p>Drift \u00b7 10 day cycle<\/p> <nav aria-label=\"Chapters\"><span>01<\/span><span>02<\/span><span>03<\/span><span>04<\/span><span>05<\/span><span>06<\/span><span>07<\/span><\/nav> <p>Class 1 \u00b7 100 m; Class 2 \u00b7 30 m; Class 3 \u00b7 10 m; Class 4 \u00b7 3 m<\/p> <article><p>Sensors \u00b7 Explainer<\/p><p>Interactive<\/p> <div role=\"heading\" aria-level=\"1\" class=\"nxo-ssr-h1\">A number is only as good as its chain.<\/div> <p>An observation carries where it was made, how it was checked, what it traces back to and who can vouch for it. Seven steps from a weather station&#8217;s mast to a float two kilometres down.<\/p> <dl><dt>Standards<\/dt><dd>WMO-No. 8 \u00b7 No. 1192 \u00b7 GUM<\/dd> <dt>Networks<\/dt><dd>Weather \u00b7 radar \u00b7 seismic \u00b7 ocean<\/dd> <dt>Chapters<\/dt><dd>7<\/dd> <\/dl> <nav aria-label=\"Chapters\"><span><b>01<\/b>Siting<\/span><span><b>02<\/b>Quality control<\/span><span><b>03<\/b>Traceability<\/span><span><b>04<\/b>WIGOS metadata<\/span><span><b>05<\/b>Radar volume scan<\/span><span><b>06<\/b>Seismic vault<\/span><span><b>07<\/b>Ocean profile<\/span><\/nav> <\/article> <article><p><b>01<\/b> \u00b7 Siting<\/p><p>WMO-No. 8<\/p> <h2>The site sets the ceiling on quality.<\/h2> <p>WMO-No. 8 grades a site from class 1 to 5 for each variable. For air temperature it is the distance to heat sources such as buildings, car parks and water: class 1 beyond 100 m, then 30, 10 and 3 m. For wind it is distance in obstacle heights: 30, 10, 5 and 2.5 times. Classes 3 to 5 add up to 1, 2 and 5 \u00b0C of uncertainty to temperature.<\/p> <p>Variable<\/p> <dl><dt>Siting class<\/dt><dd>Class 3<\/dd> <dt>Distance for the next class up<\/dt><dd>30 m for class 2<\/dd> <dt>Added uncertainty, temperature<\/dt><dd>up to 1 \u00b0C<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>02<\/b> \u00b7 Quality control<\/p><p>Flags<\/p> <h2>Every value leaves the logger with a flag.<\/h2> <p>The sensor feeds a logger that averages one-minute values; automatic checks flag each one before it travels. The range check rejects air temperatures outside \u221280 to +60 \u00b0C, the step check doubts a jump of more than 3 \u00b0C in a minute, and the persistence check doubts an hour that varies by less than 0.1 \u00b0C. Inject a fault and watch the flags.<\/p> <p>Faults<\/p> <dl><dt>Values in three hours<\/dt><dd>180<\/dd> <dt>Flagged erroneous, range<\/dt><dd>0<\/dd> <dt>Flagged suspect, step<\/dt><dd>1<\/dd> <dt>Flagged suspect, persistence<\/dt><dd>75<\/dd> <dt>Passed as good<\/dt><dd>104 \u00b7 57.8 %<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>03<\/b> \u00b7 Traceability<\/p><p>GUM<\/p> <h2>An unbroken chain back to the kelvin.<\/h2> <p>Each calibration compares an instrument with a better one and adds its own uncertainty. Following the GUM, independent standard uncertainties combine as u<sub>c<\/sub> = \u221a\u03a3u\u00b2, and the expanded uncertainty U = 2u<sub>c<\/sub> covers about 95 %. A display that reads in 0.1 \u00b0C steps alone contributes 0.1\/\u221a12. WMO-No. 8 asks for 0.1 K on air temperature.<\/p> <p>Display resolution<\/p> <p>Expanded uncertainty down the chain, k = 2<\/p> <p>Lab reference<\/p> <p>0.040 \u00b0C<\/p> <p>+ bath<\/p> <p>0.057 \u00b0C<\/p> <p>Station sensor<\/p> <p>0.101 \u00b0C<\/p> <p>WMO-No. 8 target<\/p> <p>0.100 \u00b0C<\/p> <\/article> <article><p><b>04<\/b> \u00b7 WIGOS metadata<\/p><p>WMO-No. 1192<\/p> <h2>Metadata makes a number reusable.<\/h2> <p>The WIGOS Metadata Standard describes an observation in ten categories, and a WIGOS station identifier names the station worldwide: series, issuer, issue number and local identifier, as 0-20000-0-71xxx for a station with a WMO number. Fill the categories this station reports.<\/p> <p>Categories reported<\/p> <p>Issuer of identifier<\/p> <dl><dt>Categories complete<\/dt><dd>6 of 10 \u00b7 60 %<\/dd> <dt>WIGOS station identifier<\/dt><dd>0-20000-0-\u2026<\/dd> <dt>Missing<\/dt><dd>4, 6, 8, 9<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>05<\/b> \u00b7 Radar volume scan<\/p><p>VCP<\/p> <h2>Fourteen tilts, and the Earth curves away.<\/h2> <p>A weather radar sweeps a stack of elevation angles every few minutes. Under standard refraction the beam rides an Earth of 4\/3 its radius: h = \u221a(r\u00b2 + (k<sub>e<\/sub>a)\u00b2 + 2rk<sub>e<\/sub>a sin \u03b8) \u2212 k<sub>e<\/sub>a. Far from the radar, the lowest tilt overshoots the weather near the ground and the beam widens as r\u00b7\u03b8. Heights are stretched tenfold.<\/p> <p>Radar<\/p> <dl><dt>Beam centre above the radar<\/dt><dd>1.46 km<\/dd> <dt>Beam bottom to top<\/dt><dd>0.00 \u2013 3.03 km<\/dd> <dt>Beam width across<\/dt><dd>3,142 m<\/dd> <dt>Lowest tilt&#8217;s centre<\/dt><dd>1.46 km at 0.5\u00b0<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>06<\/b> \u00b7 Seismic vault<\/p><p>GNSS time<\/p> <h2>Two arrivals give the distance; the clock keeps it honest.<\/h2> <p>The P wave outruns the S wave, about 6 against 3.5 km\/s in the crust, so the gap between them grows with distance: S \u2212 P = R(1\/V<sub>s<\/sub> \u2212 1\/V<sub>p<\/sub>), about 8.4 km per second of gap. A GNSS receiver on the vault stamps every sample; any clock error moves the event by V<sub>p<\/sub> \u00d7 error.<\/p> <p>Clock error<\/p> <p>Samples per second<\/p> <dl><dt>P \u00b7 S arrival<\/dt><dd>10.14 s \u00b7 17.38 s<\/dd> <dt>S \u2212 P<\/dt><dd>7.24 s \u2192 60.8 km<\/dd> <dt>Sample interval \u00b7 as distance<\/dt><dd>10 ms \u00b7 60 m<\/dd> <dt>Clock error as distance<\/dt><dd>6 mm<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>07<\/b> \u00b7 Ocean profile<\/p><p>Argo<\/p> <h2>A float that profiles two kilometres of ocean.<\/h2> <p>A profiling float changes its buoyancy with an oil bladder: it sinks to drift at 1,000 dbar, drops to its profile depth, then rises sampling temperature, salinity and pressure, and sends the profile by satellite before it sinks again. A decibar of pressure is close to a metre of depth.<\/p> <p>Sample every<\/p> <p>Cycle<\/p> <dl><dt>Ascent time<\/dt><dd>5.5 h<\/dd> <dt>Samples per profile<\/dt><dd>1,001<\/dd> <dt>Profiles per year<\/dt><dd>36.5<\/dd> <dt>Years at 200 cycles<\/dt><dd>5.5<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <\/section> <\/main> <footer><p><a href=\"\/\">Nexus Observatory<\/a><b>Sensors &amp; instruments<\/b>. Measurements that carry their own proof.<a href=\"\/contact\/\">Talk to us<\/a><\/p><p>Sensors &amp; instruments<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/instruments\/\">Instruments<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/weather-and-environment\/\">Weather and environment<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/rf-sensing\/\">RF sensing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/calibration\/\">Calibration<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/sensing-as-a-service\/\">Sensing as a Service<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Technologies<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/sensors\/meteorology-wmo-no-8-classes\/\">Meteorology (WMO No. 8 classes)<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/sensors\/air-quality-and-atmospheric-composition\/\">Air quality and atmospheric composition<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Industries<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/industries\/public-safety\/\">Public safety<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/government\/\">Government<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/cities\/\">Cities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/resilience\/\">Civil resilience<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/communities\/\">Communities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/humanitarian\/\">Humanitarian<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/climate\/\">Climate<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Service platforms<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/protocol\/\">Observatory Protocol<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/grid-services\/\">Protocol &amp; Grid<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/software\/\">Software<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/hardware\/\">Hardware &amp; power<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/\">Connectivity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/edge-ai\/\">Edge compute &amp; AI<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI<\/a><\/li><\/ul> <p>\u00a9 2026 Nexus Observatory Inc.<\/p><nav aria-label=\"Legal\"><a href=\"\/legal\/privacy\/\">Privacy<\/a><a href=\"\/legal\/terms\/\">Terms<\/a><a href=\"\/legal\/accessibility\/\">Accessibility<\/a><a href=\"\/privacy-choices\/\">Cookie settings<\/a><a href=\"\/credits\/\">Data credits<\/a><\/nav> <\/footer>\n<\/div><!--\/nxo-ssr--><main>\n<section class=\"story\" id=\"story\" aria-label=\"Interactive sensors explainer\">\n  <div class=\"stage\" id=\"stage\">\n    <canvas id=\"c\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"3D view of an automatic weather station, a weather radar's volume scan, a seismic vault and a profiling ocean float. Drag or use the arrow keys to orbit.\"><\/canvas>\n    <div class=\"hud\" id=\"hud\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"loading\" id=\"loading\">Building the instruments\u2026<\/div>\n    <nav class=\"rail\" id=\"rail\" aria-label=\"Chapters\"><\/nav>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"chapters\" id=\"chapters\">\n    <article class=\"ch intro\" data-ch=\"0\" id=\"top\">\n      <div class=\"in\">\n        <div class=\"hrow\"><span class=\"eyebrow\">Sensors \u00b7 Explainer<\/span><span class=\"badge\">Interactive<\/span><\/div>\n        <h1>A number is only as good as its chain.<\/h1>\n        <p class=\"lede\">An observation carries where it was made, how it was checked, what it traces back to and who can vouch for it. Seven steps from a weather station&#8217;s mast to a float two kilometres down.<\/p>\n        <dl class=\"facts\" id=\"facts\"><\/dl>\n        <nav class=\"toc\" id=\"toc\" aria-label=\"Chapters\"><\/nav>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"1\" id=\"siting\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>01<\/b> \u00b7 Siting<\/span><span class=\"tag\">WMO-No. 8<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>The site sets the ceiling on quality.<\/h2>\n      <p>WMO-No. 8 grades a site from class 1 to 5 for each variable. For air temperature it is the distance to heat sources such as buildings, car parks and water: class 1 beyond 100&nbsp;m, then 30, 10 and 3&nbsp;m. For wind it is distance in obstacle heights: 30, 10, 5 and 2.5 times. Classes 3 to 5 add up to 1, 2 and 5&nbsp;\u00b0C of uncertainty to temperature.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"varL\">Variable<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"varL\" id=\"var\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"t\" aria-pressed=\"true\">Air temperature<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"w\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Wind<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"odist\">Distance to the nearest building<\/label><output id=\"odistO\" for=\"odist\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"odist\" min=\"1\" max=\"150\" step=\"1\" value=\"24\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"ohgt\">Building height<\/label><output id=\"ohgtO\" for=\"ohgt\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"ohgt\" min=\"2\" max=\"20\" step=\"1\" value=\"6\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Siting class<\/dt><dd id=\"r1c\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Distance for the next class up<\/dt><dd id=\"r1n\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Added uncertainty, temperature<\/dt><dd id=\"r1u\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"2\" id=\"qc\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>02<\/b> \u00b7 Quality control<\/span><span class=\"tag\">Flags<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Every value leaves the logger with a flag.<\/h2>\n      <p>The sensor feeds a logger that averages one-minute values; automatic checks flag each one before it travels. The range check rejects air temperatures outside \u221280 to +60&nbsp;\u00b0C, the step check doubts a jump of more than 3&nbsp;\u00b0C in a minute, and the persistence check doubts an hour that varies by less than 0.1&nbsp;\u00b0C. Inject a fault and watch the flags.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"fltL\">Faults<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"chk full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"fltL\" id=\"flt\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"spike\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Spike<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"stuck\" aria-pressed=\"true\">Stuck sensor<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"drop\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Cable fault \u221299.9<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"stepT\">Step limit<\/label><output id=\"stepTO\" for=\"stepT\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"stepT\" min=\"0.5\" max=\"6\" step=\"0.5\" value=\"3\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Values in three hours<\/dt><dd>180<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Flagged erroneous, range<\/dt><dd id=\"r2r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Flagged suspect, step<\/dt><dd id=\"r2s\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Flagged suspect, persistence<\/dt><dd id=\"r2p\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Passed as good<\/dt><dd id=\"r2g\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"3\" id=\"trace\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>03<\/b> \u00b7 Traceability<\/span><span class=\"tag\">GUM<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>An unbroken chain back to the kelvin.<\/h2>\n      <p>Each calibration compares an instrument with a better one and adds its own uncertainty. Following the GUM, independent standard uncertainties combine as u<sub>c<\/sub> = \u221a\u03a3u\u00b2, and the expanded uncertainty U = 2u<sub>c<\/sub> covers about 95&nbsp;%. A display that reads in 0.1&nbsp;\u00b0C steps alone contributes 0.1\/\u221a12. WMO-No. 8 asks for 0.1&nbsp;K on air temperature.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"uref\">Reference thermometer, u<\/label><output id=\"urefO\" for=\"uref\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"uref\" min=\"0.005\" max=\"0.1\" step=\"0.005\" value=\"0.02\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"ubath\">Bath uniformity, u<\/label><output id=\"ubathO\" for=\"ubath\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"ubath\" min=\"0.005\" max=\"0.1\" step=\"0.005\" value=\"0.02\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"urep\">Sensor repeatability, u<\/label><output id=\"urepO\" for=\"urep\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"urep\" min=\"0.005\" max=\"0.15\" step=\"0.005\" value=\"0.03\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"resL\">Display resolution<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"resL\" id=\"dres\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.01\" aria-pressed=\"false\">0.01 \u00b0C<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.1\" aria-pressed=\"true\">0.1 \u00b0C<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\" style=\"padding-bottom:4px\"><span class=\"lab\">Expanded uncertainty down the chain, k = 2<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"full bars\" id=\"ubars\"><\/div><\/div>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"4\" id=\"wigos\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>04<\/b> \u00b7 WIGOS metadata<\/span><span class=\"tag\">WMO-No. 1192<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Metadata makes a number reusable.<\/h2>\n      <p>The WIGOS Metadata Standard describes an observation in ten categories, and a WIGOS station identifier names the station worldwide: series, issuer, issue number and local identifier, as 0-20000-0-71xxx for a station with a WMO number. Fill the categories this station reports.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"catL\">Categories reported<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"chk full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"catL\" id=\"cats\"><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"issL\">Issuer of identifier<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"issL\" id=\"iss\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"20000\" aria-pressed=\"true\">20000 \u00b7 WMO number<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"124\" aria-pressed=\"false\">124 \u00b7 Canada<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"lid\">Local identifier<\/label><span><\/span><input class=\"full txt\" type=\"text\" id=\"lid\" value=\"\" placeholder=\"5-digit WMO number\" maxlength=\"16\" spellcheck=\"false\" autocomplete=\"off\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Categories complete<\/dt><dd id=\"r4c\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>WIGOS station identifier<\/dt><dd id=\"r4w\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Missing<\/dt><dd id=\"r4m\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"5\" id=\"radar\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>05<\/b> \u00b7 Radar volume scan<\/span><span class=\"tag\">VCP<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Tilt by tilt, the Earth curves away.<\/h2>\n      <p>A weather radar sweeps a stack of elevation angles every few minutes. Under standard refraction the beam rides an Earth of 4\/3 its radius: h = \u221a(r\u00b2 + (k<sub>e<\/sub>a)\u00b2 + 2rk<sub>e<\/sub>a sin \u03b8) \u2212 k<sub>e<\/sub>a. Far from the radar, the lowest tilt overshoots the weather near the ground and the beam widens as r\u00b7\u03b8. Heights are stretched tenfold.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"bwL\">Radar<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"bwL\" id=\"bw\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"1.8\" aria-pressed=\"true\">X-band \u00b7 1.2 m dish \u00b7 1.8\u00b0<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.95\" aria-pressed=\"false\">S-band \u00b7 8.5 m \u00b7 0.95\u00b0<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"rng\">Range<\/label><output id=\"rngO\" for=\"rng\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"rng\" min=\"5\" max=\"230\" step=\"5\" value=\"100\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"elv\">Tilt in red<\/label><output id=\"elvO\" for=\"elv\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"elv\" min=\"0\" max=\"13\" step=\"1\" value=\"0\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Beam centre above the radar<\/dt><dd id=\"r5h\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Beam bottom to top<\/dt><dd id=\"r5b\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Beam width across<\/dt><dd id=\"r5w\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Lowest tilt&#8217;s centre<\/dt><dd id=\"r5l\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"6\" id=\"seismic\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>06<\/b> \u00b7 Seismic vault<\/span><span class=\"tag\">GNSS time<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>The gap between arrivals gives the distance; the clock keeps it honest.<\/h2>\n      <p>The P wave outruns the S wave, about 6 against 3.5&nbsp;km\/s in the crust, so the gap between them grows with distance: S \u2212 P = R(1\/V<sub>s<\/sub> \u2212 1\/V<sub>p<\/sub>), about 8.4&nbsp;km per second of gap. A GNSS receiver on the vault stamps every sample; any clock error moves the event by V<sub>p<\/sub> \u00d7 error.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"epi\">Epicentral distance<\/label><output id=\"epiO\" for=\"epi\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"epi\" min=\"5\" max=\"300\" step=\"5\" value=\"60\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"dep\">Focal depth<\/label><output id=\"depO\" for=\"dep\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"dep\" min=\"0\" max=\"30\" step=\"1\" value=\"10\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"clkL\">Clock error<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full sm\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"clkL\" id=\"clk\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.000001\" aria-pressed=\"true\">1 \u00b5s<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.001\" aria-pressed=\"false\">1 ms<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.01\" aria-pressed=\"false\">10 ms<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.1\" aria-pressed=\"false\">100 ms<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"1\" aria-pressed=\"false\">1 s<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"spsL\">Samples per second<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full sm\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"spsL\" id=\"sps\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"20\" aria-pressed=\"false\">20<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"100\" aria-pressed=\"true\">100<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"200\" aria-pressed=\"false\">200<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>P \u00b7 S arrival<\/dt><dd id=\"r6a\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>S \u2212 P<\/dt><dd id=\"r6g\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Sample interval \u00b7 as distance<\/dt><dd id=\"r6s\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Clock error as distance<\/dt><dd id=\"r6c\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"7\" id=\"ocean\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>07<\/b> \u00b7 Ocean profile<\/span><span class=\"tag\">Argo<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>A float that profiles two kilometres of ocean.<\/h2>\n      <p>A profiling float changes its buoyancy with an oil bladder: it sinks to drift at 1,000&nbsp;dbar, drops to its profile depth, then rises sampling temperature, salinity and pressure, and sends the profile by satellite before it sinks again. A decibar of pressure is close to a metre of depth.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"pdep\">Profile depth<\/label><output id=\"pdepO\" for=\"pdep\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"pdep\" min=\"500\" max=\"2000\" step=\"100\" value=\"2000\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"asc\">Ascent speed<\/label><output id=\"ascO\" for=\"asc\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"asc\" min=\"0.05\" max=\"0.2\" step=\"0.01\" value=\"0.1\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"binL\">Sample every<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full sm\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"binL\" id=\"bin\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"1\" aria-pressed=\"false\">1 dbar<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"2\" aria-pressed=\"true\">2 dbar<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"10\" aria-pressed=\"false\">10 dbar<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"cycL\">Cycle<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full sm\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"cycL\" id=\"cyc\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"5\" aria-pressed=\"false\">5 days<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"10\" aria-pressed=\"true\">10 days<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Ascent time<\/dt><dd id=\"r7t\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Samples per profile<\/dt><dd id=\"r7s\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Profiles per year<\/dt><dd id=\"r7p\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Years at 200 cycles<\/dt><dd id=\"r7y\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"8\" id=\"scale\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>08<\/b> \u00b7 Scale<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>One station, then a network whose values compare.<\/h2>\n      <p>The smallest unit is one station, sited to a known class. A site places several instruments around shared power and a clock; a cluster shares a calibration bench and a travelling reference; a region runs one network with one metadata practice; the global layer is many operators\u2019 networks made comparable. The WMO Integrated Global Observing System is the framework that lets observations from different owners be used together.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>WMO-No. 1160, Manual on the WMO Integrated Global Observing System<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"9\" id=\"exchange\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>09<\/b> \u00b7 Exchange<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>From the station to every user who needs it.<\/h2>\n      <p>An observation is checked, encoded in a standard format and published once. In the WMO Information System 2.0, centres publish notifications through message brokers using MQTT, users subscribe and download over the web, and a global discovery catalogue describes every dataset. A value that fails quality control is flagged or held back, so a subscriber receives data together with its quality, not raw readings alone.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>WMO-No. 1060, Manual on the WMO Information System, including WIS 2.0<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"10\" id=\"upkeep\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>10<\/b> \u00b7 Maintenance<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Calibration visits, planned from the data.<\/h2>\n      <p>Every sensor drifts. A network keeps them honest with routine field checks against a travelling reference, recalibration on a schedule and replacement in rotation. Comparing each station with its neighbours flags the one whose readings wander, so the next visit goes where it is needed rather than on a fixed round. The WMO guide sets out inspection and calibration practice for each kind of instrument.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>WMO-No. 8, Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"11\" id=\"lifecycle\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>11<\/b> \u00b7 Lifecycle<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>A record that survives new instruments.<\/h2>\n      <p>A station lives through a site survey, installation, calibration, years of operation and, often, a move or a new sensor. Each change can put a step into a long record. The climate monitoring principles ask that changes be assessed before they are made and that old and new systems overlap for a while; homogenisation methods then detect and adjust the breaks that remain.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>GCOS Climate Monitoring Principles; WMO-No. 1245, Guidelines on Homogenization<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"12\" id=\"asks\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>12<\/b> \u00b7 Buyers\u2019 questions<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>What to ask of an observing network.<\/h2>\n      <p>Which siting class does each station meet, and where is that written down? Can every value be traced to a calibration record? Is the metadata complete enough for someone else to use the data years from now? Under which data policy is it shared? The WMO unified data policy separates core data, exchanged free and without restriction, from recommended data that may carry conditions.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>WMO Unified Data Policy, Resolution 1 of the Extraordinary Session of the World Meteorological Congress<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/main><noscript><nav class=\"nxo-related\" aria-labelledby=\"nxo-related-h\"><div class=\"w\"><p class=\"eyebrow\">Across the network<\/p><h2 id=\"nxo-related-h\">Related on Nexus Observatory<\/h2><div class=\"nxo-related-g\"><section><h3>Sensors &amp; instruments<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments overview<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/instruments\/\">Instruments<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/weather-and-environment\/\">Weather and environment<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/rf-sensing\/\">RF sensing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/calibration\/\">Calibration<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/sensing-as-a-service\/\">Sensing as a Service<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/areas\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments: areas<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/technologies\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments: technologies<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/architecture\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments: architecture<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/industries\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments: industries served<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/resources\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments: resources<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Industries served<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/industries\/public-safety\/\">Public safety and emergency management<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/government\/\">Government and national programmes<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/cities\/\">Cities and urban systems<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/resilience\/\">Critical infrastructure and civil resilience<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/communities\/\">Communities, rural and Indigenous connectivity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/humanitarian\/\">Humanitarian and development<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/climate\/\">Climate and atmosphere<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/water\/\">Water and hydrology<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/nature\/\">Forests, land and biodiversity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/oceans\/\">Oceans, coasts and maritime<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/agriculture\/\">Agriculture and food<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/energy\/\">Energy and utilities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/telecom\/\">Telecommunications and digital infrastructure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/transport\/\">Transport and logistics<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/infrastructure\/\">Construction and infrastructure assets<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/mining\/\">Mining and resources<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/industry\/\">Manufacturing and industrial sites<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/education\/\">Education and skills<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/health\/\">Health and environmental exposure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/insurance\/\">Insurance and finance<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/events\/\">Sports, events and venues<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Technology domains<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/sensors\/\">In situ sensors and instruments<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Related platforms<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/protocol\/\">Observatory Protocol<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/\">Connectivity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/field-services\/\">Field services<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/data-products\/\">Data &amp; 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