--- title: "Water: systems and technologies | Nexus Observatory" description: "Systems and technologies for water and hydrology: River level and discharge, Rainfall and snow, Groundwater and Water quality." url: https://observatory.global/industries/water/systems/ publisher: Nexus Observatory Inc. updated: 2026-11-02 --- Water: every catchment gauged: the systems behind it. [Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/) / [Water](https://observatory.global/industries/water/) / **Systems and technologies** # The systems behind water. The technologies that carry this industry's observations, ranked against what it needs to observe and drawn from across the spectrum. [Plan with us](https://observatory.global/industries/water/contact/) [Use cases](https://observatory.global/industries/water/use-cases/) Reference design, drawn to scale · drag to turn **01** Remote sensing and Earth observation ## Processing levels and analysis-ready data. Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data ### Level 0: raw instrument data Time-ordered packets as received, with communications artefacts removed. CCSDS 133.0-B (Space Packet Protocol) · CCSDS 131.0-B (TM synchronisation and channel coding) Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data ### Level 1: calibrated and geolocated Radiometric and geometric corrections applied, sensor units and geolocation attached (L1A, L1B, L1C). NASA EOSDIS data processing levels · ISO 19115-2 (imagery and gridded data metadata) Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data ### Level 2: geophysical variables Per-scene surface reflectance, temperature, backscatter, water or gas quantities at native resolution. CEOS ARD product family specifications Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data ### Levels 3 and 4: gridded, composited and modelled Space-time composites on fixed grids, and model or assimilation outputs that fill gaps. NASA EOSDIS data processing levels · CF Conventions Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data ### CEOS analysis-ready data Products pre-processed to threshold and goal requirements so they can be stacked and compared without expert reprocessing. CEOS ARD framework and product family specifications Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data ### Atmospheric, terrain and radiometric terrain correction Removal of atmosphere, illumination and topographic effects so pixels represent the surface. CEOS ARD Surface Reflectance · CEOS ARD SAR (Normalised Radar Backscatter) [All 9 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/processing-levels-and-analysis-ready-data/) **02** In situ sensors and instruments ## RF, acoustics, cameras and radar. **Frontier** · In situ sensors and instruments · RF, acoustics, cameras and radar ### Event-based and neuromorphic cameras Sensors that report changes per pixel at microsecond rates with very low power. EMVA 1288 (reference for characterisation) In situ sensors and instruments · RF, acoustics, cameras and radar ### Spectrum monitoring receivers Measured occupancy, interference and emissions across bands at a site. ITU-R Handbook on Spectrum Monitoring · ITU-R SM.1880 (spectrum occupancy measurement) In situ sensors and instruments · RF, acoustics, cameras and radar ### Direction finding and emitter geolocation Locating interference and unknown emitters by angle and time difference of arrival. ITU-R SM.854 (direction finding) · ITU-R Handbook on Spectrum Monitoring In situ sensors and instruments · RF, acoustics, cameras and radar ### Acoustic and noise monitoring Class 1 sound level meters and microphone arrays for environmental noise and event detection. IEC 61672-1 (sound level meters) · ISO 1996-2 (environmental noise) In situ sensors and instruments · RF, acoustics, cameras and radar ### EO/IR cameras Visible and thermal cameras characterised for sensitivity, noise and resolution. EMVA 1288 (camera characterisation) · ISO 12233 (resolution measurement) In situ sensors and instruments · RF, acoustics, cameras and radar ### PTZ and networked video systems Pan-tilt-zoom and fixed cameras for wildfire watch, sites and coastlines, with interoperable control. IEC 62676 series (video surveillance systems) · ONVIF Profiles S, T and M [All 9 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/sensors/rf-acoustics-cameras-and-radar/) **03** Remote sensing and Earth observation ## Tasking, ground segment and access. **Frontier** · Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access ### Optical ground stations Laser downlink terminals that relieve radio spectrum limits, with weather-diverse site networks. CCSDS 141.0-B (optical communications physical layer) Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access ### Tasking, mission planning and revisit analysis Choosing what to acquire and when, modelling revisit, look angle and cloud risk against need. OGC API - Connected Systems Part 2 (commands and tasking) · OGC Sensor Planning Service 2.0 Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access ### Orbit and conjunction data Standard orbit and conjunction messages used to predict passes and coordinate operations. CCSDS 502.0-B (Orbit Data Messages) · CCSDS 508.0-B (Conjunction Data Message) Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access ### Ground stations and downlink Tracking antennas and modems for S, X and Ka-band downlink in Earth exploration-satellite allocations. ITU Radio Regulations (EESS allocations, e.g. 8025-8400 MHz, 25.5-27 GHz) · ETSI EN 302 307-1 (DVB-S2) · CCSDS 131.0-B Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access ### Space link extension and station networking Standard services that let a mission use stations operated by others. CCSDS Space Link Extension (SLE) services Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access ### Direct broadcast and edge processing Receiving and processing satellite data on site for minutes-latency products without a round trip to a central archive. WMO Direct Broadcast Network (DBNet) · CGMS direct readout guidance [All 9 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/tasking-ground-segment-and-access/) **04** Ground segment ## Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks. Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks ### Shared antenna networks Pay-per-pass access to antennas across many sites so missions do not have to build their own. CCSDS 910.4-B (cross support reference model) · CCSDS 911.1-B (SLE return all frames) Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks ### Space link extension services Standard services that deliver frames and accept commands between a ground station and a remote mission centre. CCSDS 911.1-B (RAF) · CCSDS 911.2-B (RCF) · CCSDS 912.1-B (forward CLTU) Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks ### Pass scheduling and resource management Booking, deconfliction and configuration of antennas and modems for each contact. CCSDS cross support service management Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks ### High-latitude and polar ground sites Northern sites that see polar-orbiting satellites on most orbits and cut data latency. ITU RR Appendix 7 · Rec. ITU-R P.618 Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks ### Ground segment cybersecurity Access control, segmentation, monitoring and recovery for command and control systems. NIST IR 8401 (satellite ground segment and the Cybersecurity Framework) · ISO/IEC 27001 Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks ### Federated and hybrid ground networks Combining owned, partner and agency antennas behind one scheduling and data interface. CCSDS 910.4-B (cross support reference model) [All 7 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/ground-station-as-a-service-and-antenna-networks/) **05** Ground segment ## Data downlink, processing and distribution. Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution ### Level-0 to Level-2 processing chains Decommutation, calibration, geolocation and geophysical retrieval that turn raw downlink into usable products. CEOS Analysis Ready Data framework · ISO 19115-1 (metadata) Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution ### Analysis-ready data production Products corrected and packaged to a common specification so users can analyse them without reprocessing. CEOS Analysis Ready Data product family specifications Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution ### Catalogues and discovery Searchable catalogues of scenes and products with standard metadata. SpatioTemporal Asset Catalog (STAC) specification · OGC API - Records Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution ### Cloud-native geospatial formats Tiled, chunked formats that let users read only the part of a large raster or array they need. OGC Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF Standard · OGC Zarr Storage Specification Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution ### Calibration and validation Ground truth, vicarious calibration and uncertainty reporting behind every product value. CEOS Working Group on Calibration and Validation · QA4EO (CEOS quality assurance framework) Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution ### Low-latency tasking-to-delivery pipelines Automated chains from request to delivered product for time-critical uses such as fire and flood. OGC API - Processes · OGC Sensor Planning Service 2.0 [All 8 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/data-downlink-processing-and-distribution/) **06** Field operations and lifecycle ## Health, safety and evidence records. **Frontier** · Field operations and lifecycle · Health, safety and evidence records ### Signed photographic evidence Field photos with signed capture time, location and device for audit. C2PA Technical Specification 2.x Field operations and lifecycle · Health, safety and evidence records ### Occupational health and safety management Hazard identification, risk control and worker participation across all field work. ISO 45001:2018 · Canada Labour Code Part II Field operations and lifecycle · Health, safety and evidence records ### Tower and structure work Safe climbing, rigging, rescue and RF awareness on communication structures. ANSI/ASSP A10.48 · CSA Z259 series (fall protection) · ANSI/ASSP Z359 (fall protection code) Field operations and lifecycle · Health, safety and evidence records ### Electrical safety Arc flash and shock risk assessment, safe work practices and lockout. CSA Z462 · NFPA 70E · CSA Z460 (control of hazardous energy) Field operations and lifecycle · Health, safety and evidence records ### RF safety for workers Exposure limits, signage and power-down procedures near transmitters. Health Canada Safety Code 6 · IEC 62232 Field operations and lifecycle · Health, safety and evidence records ### Remote and lone work Check-in, communications, first aid and evacuation plans for isolated sites. ISO 45001:2018 · Canada Occupational Health and Safety Regulations [All 9 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/field/health-safety-and-evidence-records/) **07** Every domain ## The rest of the spectrum. The domains whose layers serve this industry, each with its full directory. [Layers · 8 · items · 61 In situ sensors and instrumentsInstruments placed in the air, water, ground and spectrum, from weather stations to seismometers, radars and cameras, with the calibration, metadata and quality control that make their readings evidence.](https://observatory.global/technologies/sensors/) [Layers · 8 · items · 66 Field operations and lifecycleEverything that happens on the ground across a site's life: survey, permits, design packs, logistics, installation, acceptance, training, operations, maintenance, upgrades, decommission and recycling, done safely and recorded as evidence.](https://observatory.global/technologies/field/) [Layers · 8 · items · 62 5G and 6G radio access networksThe radio access network from site to spectrum: macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters, massive MIMO, NR bands and TDD synchronisation, NR features such as RedCap, positioning and sidelink, private and shared networks, Wi-Fi coexistence, 6G and ISAC, and the planning and assurance that keep it working.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/) [Layers · 8 · items · 60 AI-RAN and Open RANDisaggregated, software-defined and AI-assisted radio access: the O-RAN architecture and its open interfaces, 7.2x fronthaul, RAN intelligent controllers with xApps and rApps, SMO and O-Cloud, accelerated L1, shared GPU infrastructure for RAN and AI, AI/ML in the 3GPP air interface, energy saving, and the test and integration work that makes multi-supplier RAN deployable.](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/) [Layers · 8 · items · 60 Core and transport networksThe networks behind the radio: the 5G core and its functions, slicing and edge breakout, IMS voice and emergency calling, fronthaul, midhaul and backhaul over microwave, E-band, fibre, free-space optics and satellite, IP/MPLS and segment routing, IPv6, automation and intent, and the security that holds it together.](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/) [Layers · 8 · items · 66 Satellite and space systemsThe space segment end to end: orbits and constellations, spacecraft buses, communications and Earth observation payloads, inter-satellite links, tracking and command, space safety, launch, and the licensing and filings that let a system operate over a site.](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/) [Layers · 8 · items · 63 Ground segmentEverything on the ground that talks to spacecraft: gateways and teleports, user terminals, modems and software-defined radio, shared antenna networks, CCSDS protocol stacks, mission control, data processing and the spectrum coordination behind each earth station.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/) [Layers · 7 · items · 59 Spectrum, timing and PNTThe shared foundations every network and sensor depends on: how spectrum is licensed, shared and monitored, GNSS positioning and its corrections, packet timing with PTP and SyncE, grandmasters and holdover, resilient PNT alternatives, and the detection of interference, jamming and spoofing.](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/) [Layers · 8 · items · 54 IoT, LPWAN and meshThe radios, networks, gateways, device management and field protocols that connect low-power sensors and controllers to the grid, sized to a measured power budget.](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/) [Layers · 8 · items · 59 Data, software and interoperabilityHow observations move from the edge into stores, catalogues and APIs with their provenance, licence and residency attached, and how they interoperate through open standards and the open Observatory Protocol.](https://observatory.global/technologies/data/) [Layers · 8 · items · 67 Remote sensing and Earth observationEvery platform, sensor, processing level and ground-segment step that turns remote measurements of the Earth into calibrated, analysis-ready evidence for a site, a region or a network.](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/) [Layers · 8 · items · 65 GIS, maps and GeoAIThe reference frames, formats, services, analysis methods, machine learning and 3D models that turn observations into located, queryable and decision-ready geographic information.](https://observatory.global/technologies/gis/) [Layers · 8 · items · 65 AI systemsAI from model to accountable operation: edge inference and model optimisation, foundation models for Earth observation and geospatial work, time-series and sensor AI, multimodal fusion and supervised agentic operations, federated and privacy-preserving learning, physical AI and robotics within stated red lines, MLOps, evaluation and model risk, and the governance frameworks that apply to each.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ai/) ## Bring us the site. 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