---
title: "Mining: systems and technologies | Nexus Observatory"
description: "Systems and technologies for mining and resources: Fibre and optical transport, Single-mode fibre plant, Passive optical networks and DWDM and ROADM networks."
url: https://observatory.global/industries/mining/systems/
publisher: Nexus Observatory Inc.
updated: 2026-11-02
---

Mining: the mine measured from pit to tailings: the systems behind it.

[Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/)

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[Mining](https://observatory.global/industries/mining/)

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**Systems and technologies** 

# The systems behind mining.

The technologies that carry this industry's observations, ranked against what it needs to observe and drawn from across the spectrum.

[Plan with us](https://observatory.global/industries/mining/contact/)

[Use cases](https://observatory.global/industries/mining/use-cases/)

Reference design, drawn to scale · drag to turn

**01** Ground segment

## Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks.

Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks

### Shared antenna networks

Pay-per-pass access to antennas across many sites so missions do not have to build their own.

CCSDS 910.4-B (cross support reference model) · CCSDS 911.1-B (SLE return all frames)

Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks

### Space link extension services

Standard services that deliver frames and accept commands between a ground station and a remote mission centre.

CCSDS 911.1-B (RAF) · CCSDS 911.2-B (RCF) · CCSDS 912.1-B (forward CLTU)

Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks

### Pass scheduling and resource management

Booking, deconfliction and configuration of antennas and modems for each contact.

CCSDS cross support service management

Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks

### High-latitude and polar ground sites

Northern sites that see polar-orbiting satellites on most orbits and cut data latency.

ITU RR Appendix 7 · Rec. ITU-R P.618

Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks

### Ground segment cybersecurity

Access control, segmentation, monitoring and recovery for command and control systems.

NIST IR 8401 (satellite ground segment and the Cybersecurity Framework) · ISO/IEC 27001

Ground segment · Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks

### Federated and hybrid ground networks

Combining owned, partner and agency antennas behind one scheduling and data interface.

CCSDS 910.4-B (cross support reference model)

[All 7 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/ground-station-as-a-service-and-antenna-networks/)

**02** Core and transport networks

## Fibre and optical transport.

**Frontier** · Core and transport networks · Fibre and optical transport

### Distributed fibre sensing

Using telecom fibre as a sensor for vibration, temperature and strain along its route.

IEC 61757 (fibre optic sensors)

Core and transport networks · Fibre and optical transport

### Single-mode fibre plant

Standard and bend-insensitive fibre for long-haul, metro and access.

ITU-T G.652 · ITU-T G.657

Core and transport networks · Fibre and optical transport

### Passive optical networks

GPON, XGS-PON and 50G-PON for access, enterprise and small-cell backhaul.

ITU-T G.984 (GPON) · ITU-T G.9807.1 (XGS-PON) · ITU-T G.9804.3 (50G-PON PMD)

Core and transport networks · Fibre and optical transport

### DWDM and ROADM networks

Many wavelengths per fibre with reconfigurable add-drop for regional rings.

ITU-T G.694.1 (DWDM frequency grid) · ITU-T G.698.2 (amplified multichannel DWDM interfaces)

Core and transport networks · Fibre and optical transport

### Optical transport network (OTN)

Digital wrapper that multiplexes and protects client signals over wavelengths.

ITU-T G.709

Core and transport networks · Fibre and optical transport

### Coherent pluggable optics

Router-pluggable coherent optics that remove separate transponders for metro links.

OIF 400ZR Implementation Agreement · OIF coherent interoperability agreements

[All 8 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/fibre-and-optical-transport/)

**03** 5G and 6G radio access networks

## Private networks and RAN sharing.

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Standalone non-public networks (SNPN)

Fully separate private 5G networks with their own identifiers, core and subscriptions.

3GPP TS 23.501 clause 5.30.2

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Public network integrated NPN (PNI-NPN)

Private networks delivered as slices or DNNs of a public network, with closed access groups.

3GPP TS 23.501 clause 5.30.3

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Neutral host networks

One shared network that serves several operators' subscribers in buildings, campuses or rural corridors.

3GPP TS 23.251 (network sharing) · 3GPP TS 23.501 (SNPN with credentials from a separate entity)

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### RAN sharing (MORAN and MOCN)

Operators sharing radios and sometimes spectrum to cut cost in low-density areas.

3GPP TS 23.251 · 3GPP TS 32.130 (network sharing management)

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Industrial 5G LAN and TSN integration

Layer-2 group services and time-sensitive networking bridging for operational technology.

3GPP TS 23.501 clauses 5.27 and 5.29 · 3GPP TS 22.104

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Shared and local spectrum for private networks

CBRS-type tiered access and local licences that let enterprises and communities run their own networks.

FCC 47 CFR Part 96 (CBRS) · ISED non-competitive local licensing framework (3900–3980 MHz)

[All 7 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/private-networks-and-ran-sharing/)

**04** Remote sensing and Earth observation

## Radar, lidar and microwave sensors.

**Frontier** · Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### GNSS reflectometry

Reflected navigation signals for ocean wind, soil moisture and flood extent from low-cost receivers.

WMO OSCAR/Space

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Synthetic aperture radar by band (P, L, S, C, X, Ku, Ka)

All-weather, day-night imaging; longer bands penetrate vegetation and dry soil, shorter bands resolve detail.

IEEE Std 521 (radar band letter designations) · CEOS ARD SAR (Normalised Radar Backscatter)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Interferometric SAR (InSAR)

Phase differences between passes that measure ground and structure motion to millimetres, plus elevation.

CEOS ARD SAR (Interferometric Radar, Geocoded Single-Look Complex) · ISO/TS 19159-3 (SAR and InSAR calibration)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Polarimetric SAR (PolSAR)

Full or dual polarisation scattering for crop type, flooded vegetation, sea ice and biomass.

CEOS ARD SAR (Polarimetric Radar)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Ocean radar backscatter and scatterometry

Wind, waves, oil slicks, ships and sea ice from radar over water.

CEOS ARD SAR (Ocean Radar Backscatter)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Radar altimetry

Height of sea, lake, river and ice surfaces along the ground track for water level and ice monitoring.

CEOS Ocean Surface Topography Virtual Constellation

[All 10 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/radar-lidar-and-microwave-sensors/)

**05** In situ sensors and instruments

## Calibration, metadata and quality control.

In situ sensors and instruments · Calibration, metadata and quality control

### Calibration laboratories and traceability

Calibrations tied to SI standards through accredited laboratories with stated uncertainty.

ISO/IEC 17025:2017 · CIPM MRA (BIPM)

In situ sensors and instruments · Calibration, metadata and quality control

### Measurement uncertainty

Uncertainty budgets that travel with every reading.

JCGM 100:2008 (GUM) · JCGM 200:2012 (VIM)

In situ sensors and instruments · Calibration, metadata and quality control

### Field calibration and intercomparison

Travelling standards, field checks and intercomparisons between instruments.

WMO Regional Instrument Centres · WMO instrument intercomparisons

In situ sensors and instruments · Calibration, metadata and quality control

### WIGOS metadata

Station and instrument metadata to the WMO standard so others can interpret observations.

WMO-No. 1192 (WIGOS Metadata Standard) · WMO-No. 1160 (Manual on WIGOS, station identifiers) · OSCAR/Surface

In situ sensors and instruments · Calibration, metadata and quality control

### Sensor and procedure descriptions

Machine-readable descriptions of sensors, processes and sampling.

OGC SensorML 2.1 · ISO 19156:2023 · W3C/OGC SOSA/SSN

In situ sensors and instruments · Calibration, metadata and quality control

### Automated quality control

Range, rate, flat-line, spike and neighbour tests with flags on every value.

IOOS QARTOD manuals · WMO WIGOS Data Quality Monitoring System (WDQMS)

[All 7 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/sensors/calibration-metadata-and-quality-control/)

**06** Spectrum, timing and PNT

## Spectrum monitoring and interference management.

**Frontier** · Spectrum, timing and PNT · Spectrum monitoring and interference management

### Distributed low-cost SDR sensor networks

Many inexpensive receivers at sites forming a continuous spectrum picture.

Rec. ITU-R SM.1880 · ITU Handbook on Spectrum Monitoring

**Frontier** · Spectrum, timing and PNT · Spectrum monitoring and interference management

### Machine-learning signal classification

Models that recognise signal types and anomalies in monitoring data.

ITU Handbook on Spectrum Monitoring

Spectrum, timing and PNT · Spectrum monitoring and interference management

### Fixed, transportable and mobile monitoring stations

Calibrated receivers and antennas that measure what is actually on air around a site or region.

ITU Handbook on Spectrum Monitoring · Rec. ITU-R SM.1880 (spectrum occupancy measurement)

Spectrum, timing and PNT · Spectrum monitoring and interference management

### Spectrum occupancy measurement

Statistics of channel use over time that inform planning, sharing and licence applications.

Rec. ITU-R SM.1880

Spectrum, timing and PNT · Spectrum monitoring and interference management

### Emitter location (TDOA and angle of arrival)

Multi-sensor techniques that locate interference sources for resolution with the regulator.

ITU Handbook on Spectrum Monitoring

Spectrum, timing and PNT · Spectrum monitoring and interference management

### Interference investigation and reporting

A documented process from detection to resolution, using international reporting formats where needed.

ITU RR Art. 15 · ITU RR Appendix 10 (harmful interference report)

[All 8 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/spectrum-monitoring-and-interference-management/)

**07** Every domain

## The rest of the spectrum.

The domains whose layers serve this industry, each with its full directory.

[Layers · 8 · items · 61 In situ sensors and instrumentsInstruments placed in the air, water, ground and spectrum, from weather stations to seismometers, radars and cameras, with the calibration, metadata and quality control that make their readings evidence.](https://observatory.global/technologies/sensors/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 67 Remote sensing and Earth observationEvery platform, sensor, processing level and ground-segment step that turns remote measurements of the Earth into calibrated, analysis-ready evidence for a site, a region or a network.](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 65 GIS, maps and GeoAIThe reference frames, formats, services, analysis methods, machine learning and 3D models that turn observations into located, queryable and decision-ready geographic information.](https://observatory.global/technologies/gis/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 62 5G and 6G radio access networksThe radio access network from site to spectrum: macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters, massive MIMO, NR bands and TDD synchronisation, NR features such as RedCap, positioning and sidelink, private and shared networks, Wi-Fi coexistence, 6G and ISAC, and the planning and assurance that keep it working.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 60 AI-RAN and Open RANDisaggregated, software-defined and AI-assisted radio access: the O-RAN architecture and its open interfaces, 7.2x fronthaul, RAN intelligent controllers with xApps and rApps, SMO and O-Cloud, accelerated L1, shared GPU infrastructure for RAN and AI, AI/ML in the 3GPP air interface, energy saving, and the test and integration work that makes multi-supplier RAN deployable.](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 60 Core and transport networksThe networks behind the radio: the 5G core and its functions, slicing and edge breakout, IMS voice and emergency calling, fronthaul, midhaul and backhaul over microwave, E-band, fibre, free-space optics and satellite, IP/MPLS and segment routing, IPv6, automation and intent, and the security that holds it together.](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 66 Satellite and space systemsThe space segment end to end: orbits and constellations, spacecraft buses, communications and Earth observation payloads, inter-satellite links, tracking and command, space safety, launch, and the licensing and filings that let a system operate over a site.](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 63 Ground segmentEverything on the ground that talks to spacecraft: gateways and teleports, user terminals, modems and software-defined radio, shared antenna networks, CCSDS protocol stacks, mission control, data processing and the spectrum coordination behind each earth station.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/)

[Layers · 7 · items · 59 Spectrum, timing and PNTThe shared foundations every network and sensor depends on: how spectrum is licensed, shared and monitored, GNSS positioning and its corrections, packet timing with PTP and SyncE, grandmasters and holdover, resilient PNT alternatives, and the detection of interference, jamming and spoofing.](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 54 IoT, LPWAN and meshThe radios, networks, gateways, device management and field protocols that connect low-power sensors and controllers to the grid, sized to a measured power budget.](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 66 Field operations and lifecycleEverything that happens on the ground across a site's life: survey, permits, design packs, logistics, installation, acceptance, training, operations, maintenance, upgrades, decommission and recycling, done safely and recorded as evidence.](https://observatory.global/technologies/field/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 59 Data, software and interoperabilityHow observations move from the edge into stores, catalogues and APIs with their provenance, licence and residency attached, and how they interoperate through open standards and the open Observatory Protocol.](https://observatory.global/technologies/data/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 64 Power, energy and ruggedisationHow a remote site is powered, stored, distributed, cooled, sealed, tested, grounded, held up and kept safe, from a solar-powered sensor to a hybrid microgrid on a guyed mast.](https://observatory.global/technologies/power/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 65 AI systemsAI from model to accountable operation: edge inference and model optimisation, foundation models for Earth observation and geospatial work, time-series and sensor AI, multimodal fusion and supervised agentic operations, federated and privacy-preserving learning, physical AI and robotics within stated red lines, MLOps, evaluation and model risk, and the governance frameworks that apply to each.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ai/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 61 Security, identity and trustHow every node proves what it is and what it runs, how links and keys are protected, how software is traced to its source, how personal data is minimised, and how incidents are found and handled.](https://observatory.global/technologies/security/)

## Bring us the site.

Survey, design, deployment and operation for mining. The form names who receives your details.

[Talk to us](https://observatory.global/contact/)

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[Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/)**Mining and resources** . The mine, measured from pit to tailings.[Talk to us](https://observatory.global/industries/mining/contact/)

Mining

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