---
title: "Infrastructure: systems and technologies | Nexus Observatory"
description: "Systems and technologies for construction and infrastructure assets: Synthetic aperture radar by band (P, L, S, C, X, Ku, Ka)…"
url: https://observatory.global/industries/infrastructure/systems/
publisher: Nexus Observatory Inc.
updated: 2026-11-02
---

[Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/)

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[Infrastructure](https://observatory.global/industries/infrastructure/)

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**Systems and technologies** 

# The systems behind infrastructure.

The technologies that carry this industry's observations, ranked against what it needs to observe and drawn from across the spectrum.

[Plan a deployment](https://observatory.global/contact/deployment/)

[Use cases](https://observatory.global/industries/infrastructure/use-cases/)

[Open the explainer](https://observatory.global/industries/infrastructure/explainer/)

Reference design, drawn to scale · drag to turn

1. Infrastructure · Systems and technologies Assets that report their own condition Structural and ground-movement monitoring for bridges, dams, tunnels and slopes, drone survey and 3D twins for construction, satellite interferometry over whole networks, and deployable kits for the site before the permanent network exists. Needs: displacement and deformation, vibration and strain, ground movement over wide areas, as-built geometry and site connectivity during construction.
2. Platform · Sensors & instruments Measurements that carry their own proof Weather and environment stations to WMO practice, RF spectrum sensing in the band, and calibration that is traceable, recorded and repeated. Every value leaves with its metadata, quality flag and provenance. Or buy the observations and leave the hardware to us: Sensing as a Service. [Sensors & instruments](https://observatory.global/sensors/)
3. Platform · Earth observation & GeoAI The ground, measured and modelled Ground-segment downlink and processing at the edge, drone and imagery campaigns planned to the ground sample distance, site twins measured in 3D, and GeoAI trained and checked against field truth, with the source and licence of every layer in view. [Earth observation & GeoAI](https://observatory.global/earth-observation/)
4. Platform · Data & licensing Grid data, licensed for your use Research, commercial API, enterprise and government tiers, the licence of every source carried through to every product, routes from licensed to open release, and residency fixed by contract. It is delivered and supported by Nexus Observatory Inc. The evidence travels with the data wherever it goes. [Data & licensing](https://observatory.global/data-products/)
5. Platform · Field services Survey to decommission, one accountable crew Ground, RF and power surveyed before anything is chosen, installation and commissioning to the plan, a Managed Site run for you, support by plan, training on your own site, and decommissioning with every part recorded. Changes are versioned, tested and reversible. [Field services](https://observatory.global/field-services/)
6. Platform · Digital twins and simulation Model the site before you build it The same design repeats from the first site to the last. It runs on the open Observatory Protocol, so other providers can join. Crews, software and records stay the same as the network grows. Changes are versioned, tested and reversible. [Digital twins and simulation](https://observatory.global/digital-twins/)
7. Platform · Connectivity Private 5G, AI-RAN and orbit, on site Standalone private 5G and O-RAN, AI-RAN on shared accelerated compute, LEO and GEO backhaul and 3GPP direct-to-device, LPWAN and mesh for sensors over kilometres, PTP timing inside the budget, and the spectrum route for each country. Every reading and every change leaves a record that can be checked later. [Connectivity](https://observatory.global/connectivity/)
8. Platform · Hardware & power Built for the site, not the lab Every reading and every change leaves a record that can be checked later. The same design repeats from the first site to the last. It runs on the open Observatory Protocol, so other providers can join. Crews, software and records stay the same as the network grows. [Hardware & power](https://observatory.global/hardware/)
9. How it scales One base unit, repeated A programme starts with one base node and the instruments it reads. A station adds power and radio, a site adds a relay, a fleet repeats the proven site across many places, and a network federates fleets through edge and core. Capacity grows by adding units, never by replacing what works.
10. Updates Updates in rings, with rollback Software and configuration reach the fleet in rings: a canary site first, then a few, then all, each ring gated on health and data completeness. A failed gate stops the wave and returns each node to its last good release, without a site visit.
11. Field service One crew, from survey to repair The same crew surveys, installs, commissions, calibrates and repairs, working from the site's own record. Each visit updates it, so the next crew knows exactly what is there, when it was last checked and why it was changed. Spares and references are planned from that history.
12. What you get Structural and ground-movement monitoring GNSS, InSAR, tilt, strain and fibre sensing on bridges, dams, slopes, tailings and pipelines, with alert thresholds set by the owner. Delivered as managed service and data licence, for infrastructure, mining and pipeline operators, transport agencies. Scale: Asset portfolios. Service levels are written as numbers you can measure on your own dashboard. [Talk to sales](https://observatory.global/contact/sales-enquiry/)
13. Next step Plan an infrastructure deployment Tell us the sites, the measurements and the people who will use them. We reply with a design and a scope for infrastructure. An engineer replies with a survey proposal and a scope, and the plan grows from one site to the network you need, at your pace. [Plan a deployment](https://observatory.global/contact/deployment/) [Open the Studio](https://observatory.global/studio/) [Read the stories](https://observatory.global/stories/)

**01** Remote sensing and Earth observation

## Processing levels and analysis-ready data.

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data

### Level 0: raw instrument data

Time-ordered packets as received, with communications artefacts removed.

CCSDS 133.0-B (Space Packet Protocol) · CCSDS 131.0-B (TM synchronisation and channel coding)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data

### Level 1: calibrated and geolocated

Radiometric and geometric corrections applied, sensor units and geolocation attached (L1A, L1B, L1C).

NASA EOSDIS data processing levels · ISO 19115-2 (imagery and gridded data metadata)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data

### Level 2: geophysical variables

Per-scene surface reflectance, temperature, backscatter, water or gas quantities at native resolution.

CEOS ARD product family specifications

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data

### Levels 3 and 4: gridded, composited and modelled

Space-time composites on fixed grids, and model or assimilation outputs that fill gaps.

NASA EOSDIS data processing levels · CF Conventions

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data

### CEOS analysis-ready data

Products pre-processed to threshold and goal requirements so they can be stacked and compared without expert reprocessing.

CEOS ARD framework and product family specifications

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Processing levels and analysis-ready data

### Atmospheric, terrain and radiometric terrain correction

Removal of atmosphere, illumination and topographic effects so pixels represent the surface.

CEOS ARD Surface Reflectance · CEOS ARD SAR (Normalised Radar Backscatter)

[All 9 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/processing-levels-and-analysis-ready-data/)

**02** IoT, LPWAN and mesh

## Low-power wide-area networks.

IoT, LPWAN and mesh · Low-power wide-area networks

### LoRaWAN

Long-range, low-power star-of-stars networks in licence-exempt bands for sensors over kilometres.

LoRaWAN L2 1.0.4 (TS001-1.0.4) · LoRaWAN Backend Interfaces (TS002)

IoT, LPWAN and mesh · Low-power wide-area networks

### LoRaWAN Regional Parameters

Per-region channel plans, data rates, power limits and duty cycles that a deployment must follow.

LoRaWAN Regional Parameters RP002-1.0.4

IoT, LPWAN and mesh · Low-power wide-area networks

### LR-FHSS and LoRaWAN relay

Frequency-hopping modulation for dense and satellite links, and relays that extend coverage into shadowed sites.

LoRaWAN Regional Parameters RP002-1.0.2 and later (LR-FHSS data rates) · LoRaWAN Relay specification (TS011)

IoT, LPWAN and mesh · Low-power wide-area networks

### NB-IoT and LTE-M

Licensed cellular IoT with deep coverage, mobility (LTE-M) and operator-managed security.

3GPP TS 36.300 (E-UTRA, Rel-13 onward) · GSMA LTE-M and NB-IoT deployment guides

IoT, LPWAN and mesh · Low-power wide-area networks

### Power saving mode and eDRX

Cellular sleep and extended paging cycles that set battery life for cellular sensors.

3GPP TS 23.682 (MTC architecture) · 3GPP TS 24.301 (NAS)

IoT, LPWAN and mesh · Low-power wide-area networks

### 5G RedCap and eRedCap

Reduced-capability NR devices for cameras, wearables and industrial sensors on 5G networks.

3GPP TS 38.300 (Rel-17 RedCap, Rel-18 eRedCap)

[All 9 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/low-power-wide-area-networks/)

**03** Ground segment

## Data downlink, processing and distribution.

Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution

### Level-0 to Level-2 processing chains

Decommutation, calibration, geolocation and geophysical retrieval that turn raw downlink into usable products.

CEOS Analysis Ready Data framework · ISO 19115-1 (metadata)

Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution

### Analysis-ready data production

Products corrected and packaged to a common specification so users can analyse them without reprocessing.

CEOS Analysis Ready Data product family specifications

Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution

### Catalogues and discovery

Searchable catalogues of scenes and products with standard metadata.

SpatioTemporal Asset Catalog (STAC) specification · OGC API - Records

Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution

### Cloud-native geospatial formats

Tiled, chunked formats that let users read only the part of a large raster or array they need.

OGC Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF Standard · OGC Zarr Storage Specification

Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution

### Calibration and validation

Ground truth, vicarious calibration and uncertainty reporting behind every product value.

CEOS Working Group on Calibration and Validation · QA4EO (CEOS quality assurance framework)

Ground segment · Data downlink, processing and distribution

### Low-latency tasking-to-delivery pipelines

Automated chains from request to delivered product for time-critical uses such as fire and flood.

OGC API - Processes · OGC Sensor Planning Service 2.0

[All 8 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/data-downlink-processing-and-distribution/)

**04** Remote sensing and Earth observation

## Radar, lidar and microwave sensors.

**Frontier** · Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### GNSS reflectometry

Reflected navigation signals for ocean wind, soil moisture and flood extent from low-cost receivers.

WMO OSCAR/Space

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Synthetic aperture radar by band (P, L, S, C, X, Ku, Ka)

All-weather, day-night imaging; longer bands penetrate vegetation and dry soil, shorter bands resolve detail.

IEEE Std 521 (radar band letter designations) · CEOS ARD SAR (Normalised Radar Backscatter)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Interferometric SAR (InSAR)

Phase differences between passes that measure ground and structure motion to millimetres, plus elevation.

CEOS ARD SAR (Interferometric Radar, Geocoded Single-Look Complex) · ISO/TS 19159-3 (SAR and InSAR calibration)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Polarimetric SAR (PolSAR)

Full or dual polarisation scattering for crop type, flooded vegetation, sea ice and biomass.

CEOS ARD SAR (Polarimetric Radar)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Ocean radar backscatter and scatterometry

Wind, waves, oil slicks, ships and sea ice from radar over water.

CEOS ARD SAR (Ocean Radar Backscatter)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Radar, lidar and microwave sensors

### Radar altimetry

Height of sea, lake, river and ice surfaces along the ground track for water level and ice monitoring.

CEOS Ocean Surface Topography Virtual Constellation

[All 10 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/radar-lidar-and-microwave-sensors/)

**05** Remote sensing and Earth observation

## Tasking, ground segment and access.

**Frontier** · Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access

### Optical ground stations

Laser downlink terminals that relieve radio spectrum limits, with weather-diverse site networks.

CCSDS 141.0-B (optical communications physical layer)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access

### Tasking, mission planning and revisit analysis

Choosing what to acquire and when, modelling revisit, look angle and cloud risk against need.

OGC API - Connected Systems Part 2 (commands and tasking) · OGC Sensor Planning Service 2.0

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access

### Orbit and conjunction data

Standard orbit and conjunction messages used to predict passes and coordinate operations.

CCSDS 502.0-B (Orbit Data Messages) · CCSDS 508.0-B (Conjunction Data Message)

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access

### Ground stations and downlink

Tracking antennas and modems for S, X and Ka-band downlink in Earth exploration-satellite allocations.

ITU Radio Regulations (EESS allocations, e.g. 8025-8400 MHz, 25.5-27 GHz) · ETSI EN 302 307-1 (DVB-S2) · CCSDS 131.0-B

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access

### Space link extension and station networking

Standard services that let a mission use stations operated by others.

CCSDS Space Link Extension (SLE) services

Remote sensing and Earth observation · Tasking, ground segment and access

### Direct broadcast and edge processing

Receiving and processing satellite data on site for minutes-latency products without a round trip to a central archive.

WMO Direct Broadcast Network (DBNet) · CGMS direct readout guidance

[All 9 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/tasking-ground-segment-and-access/)

**06** 5G and 6G radio access networks

## Private networks and RAN sharing.

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Standalone non-public networks (SNPN)

Fully separate private 5G networks with their own identifiers, core and subscriptions.

3GPP TS 23.501 clause 5.30.2

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Public network integrated NPN (PNI-NPN)

Private networks delivered as slices or DNNs of a public network, with closed access groups.

3GPP TS 23.501 clause 5.30.3

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Neutral host networks

One shared network that serves several operators' subscribers in buildings, campuses or rural corridors.

3GPP TS 23.251 (network sharing) · 3GPP TS 23.501 (SNPN with credentials from a separate entity)

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### RAN sharing (MORAN and MOCN)

Operators sharing radios and sometimes spectrum to cut cost in low-density areas.

3GPP TS 23.251 · 3GPP TS 32.130 (network sharing management)

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Industrial 5G LAN and TSN integration

Layer-2 group services and time-sensitive networking bridging for operational technology.

3GPP TS 23.501 clauses 5.27 and 5.29 · 3GPP TS 22.104

5G and 6G radio access networks · Private networks and RAN sharing

### Shared and local spectrum for private networks

CBRS-type tiered access and local licences that let enterprises and communities run their own networks.

FCC 47 CFR Part 96 (CBRS) · ISED non-competitive local licensing framework (3900–3980 MHz)

[All 7 in this layer](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/private-networks-and-ran-sharing/)

**07** Every domain

## The rest of the spectrum.

The domains whose layers serve this industry, each with its full directory.

[Layers · 8 · items · 61 In situ sensors and instrumentsInstruments placed in the air, water, ground and spectrum, from weather stations to seismometers, radars and cameras, with the calibration, metadata and quality control that make their readings evidence.](https://observatory.global/technologies/sensors/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 67 Remote sensing and Earth observationEvery platform, sensor, processing level and ground-segment step that turns remote measurements of the Earth into calibrated, analysis-ready evidence for a site, a region or a network.](https://observatory.global/technologies/eo/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 65 GIS, maps and GeoAIThe reference frames, formats, services, analysis methods, machine learning and 3D models that turn observations into located, queryable and decision-ready geographic information.](https://observatory.global/technologies/gis/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 59 Data, software and interoperabilityHow observations move from the edge into stores, catalogues and APIs with their provenance, licence and residency attached, and how they interoperate through open standards and the open Observatory Protocol.](https://observatory.global/technologies/data/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 66 Field operations and lifecycleEverything that happens on the ground across a site's life: survey, permits, design packs, logistics, installation, acceptance, training, operations, maintenance, upgrades, decommission and recycling, done safely and recorded as evidence.](https://observatory.global/technologies/field/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 65 AI systemsAI from model to accountable operation: edge inference and model optimisation, foundation models for Earth observation and geospatial work, time-series and sensor AI, multimodal fusion and supervised agentic operations, federated and privacy-preserving learning, physical AI and robotics within stated red lines, MLOps, evaluation and model risk, and the governance frameworks that apply to each.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ai/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 62 5G and 6G radio access networksThe radio access network from site to spectrum: macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters, massive MIMO, NR bands and TDD synchronisation, NR features such as RedCap, positioning and sidelink, private and shared networks, Wi-Fi coexistence, 6G and ISAC, and the planning and assurance that keep it working.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 60 AI-RAN and Open RANDisaggregated, software-defined and AI-assisted radio access: the O-RAN architecture and its open interfaces, 7.2x fronthaul, RAN intelligent controllers with xApps and rApps, SMO and O-Cloud, accelerated L1, shared GPU infrastructure for RAN and AI, AI/ML in the 3GPP air interface, energy saving, and the test and integration work that makes multi-supplier RAN deployable.](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 60 Core and transport networksThe networks behind the radio: the 5G core and its functions, slicing and edge breakout, IMS voice and emergency calling, fronthaul, midhaul and backhaul over microwave, E-band, fibre, free-space optics and satellite, IP/MPLS and segment routing, IPv6, automation and intent, and the security that holds it together.](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 66 Satellite and space systemsThe space segment end to end: orbits and constellations, spacecraft buses, communications and Earth observation payloads, inter-satellite links, tracking and command, space safety, launch, and the licensing and filings that let a system operate over a site.](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 63 Ground segmentEverything on the ground that talks to spacecraft: gateways and teleports, user terminals, modems and software-defined radio, shared antenna networks, CCSDS protocol stacks, mission control, data processing and the spectrum coordination behind each earth station.](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/)

[Layers · 7 · items · 59 Spectrum, timing and PNTThe shared foundations every network and sensor depends on: how spectrum is licensed, shared and monitored, GNSS positioning and its corrections, packet timing with PTP and SyncE, grandmasters and holdover, resilient PNT alternatives, and the detection of interference, jamming and spoofing.](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 54 IoT, LPWAN and meshThe radios, networks, gateways, device management and field protocols that connect low-power sensors and controllers to the grid, sized to a measured power budget.](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/)

[Layers · 8 · items · 64 Power, energy and ruggedisationHow a remote site is powered, stored, distributed, cooled, sealed, tested, grounded, held up and kept safe, from a solar-powered sensor to a hybrid microgrid on a guyed mast.](https://observatory.global/technologies/power/)

## Bring us the site.

Survey, design, deployment and operation for infrastructure. The form names who receives your details.

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[Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/)**Infrastructure** . Assets that report their own condition.[Talk to us](https://observatory.global/contact/)

Infrastructure

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- [Early warning](https://observatory.global/use-cases/street-flood/)
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