--- title: "Glaciers, snow and mountain water | Nexus Observatory" description: "Glaciers and seasonal snow store water that rivers below depend on, and they are changing faster than almost anything else." url: https://observatory.global/industries/climate/mountain-cryosphere/ publisher: Nexus Observatory Inc. updated: 2026-11-02 --- [Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/) / [Climate](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/) / [Specialized fields](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/fields/) / **Glaciers, snow and mountain water** # The mountain water towers, measured. Glaciers and seasonal snow store water that rivers below depend on, and they are changing faster than almost anything else. Stations on and around glaciers measure snow, ice, weather and runoff, so water managers, hazard services and scientists know what the mountains still hold. [Plan a deployment](https://observatory.global/contact/deployment/) How it works [Station Builder](https://observatory.global/studio/builder/) **Industry**: Climate **Measurements**: 5 **Sources cited**: 5 1. Climate · Glaciers, snow and mountain water Water towers, melting Glaciers and seasonal snow store the water that rivers below depend on through dry summers, and they are changing faster than almost anything else on Earth. Water managers, hazard services and scientists need to know what the mountains still hold, measured where the ice is, through storms and darkness. 2. What is measured Snow, ice, weather and runoff Snow stations at several heights up the mountain measure depth and water equivalent. On the glacier, surface height sensors, stakes and weather stations measure melt, GNSS receivers measure flow and lowering, and time-lapse cameras watch the front. River gauges below measure what runs off. InstrumentsSnow sensors · Surface height · GNSS · Time-lapse cameras · River gauges 3. The base node Melt, computed on the ice The node computes snow water equivalent and surface lowering from its sensors, flags rapid changes that may signal a hazard, reduces images to what matters and sends compact reports when power or link is short, keeping everything for the summer visit. 4. Radio and links Satellite from the summits High mountain stations are beyond terrestrial networks. Broadband satellite carries data and images, and a narrowband direct-to-device path keeps essential values flowing when snow buries the broadband antenna or power runs low through a long storm. Everything else waits for the summer visit. LinksBroadband satellite · Narrowband satellite 5. How it works From melting snow to a water allocation In late spring the snow stations show the snowpack melting weeks early on the middle slopes. The node reports falling water equivalent each day, runoff peaks early, and the water agency adjusts its summer allocation before the reservoirs fall, with the evidence on record. 6. From order to operation · Order Scope the water and the hazards The scope reads the basins, the water users downstream, glacier and snow hazards, existing stations and the access seasons. Nexus Observatory Inc. returns the station plan from valley to summit, power and satellite design, and a price per station and per year. [Plan a deployment](https://observatory.global/contact/deployment/) 7. From order to operation · Survey Survey in the melt season Crews and glaciologists visit candidate sites in the short melt season: stable ground or ice, avalanche paths, snow drifting, the sky view for satellite and the safest access. Findings are recorded with photographs and coordinates. Findings shape the kit for each site before anything is built. 8. From order to operation · Permits Protected areas and helicopters Most glaciers lie in protected areas; work is approved by park and land authorities, helicopter flights are planned with aviation and wildlife rules, and every approval is kept with the station record. No crew goes to site before its approvals are in place. 9. From order to operation · Build Build for ice and storms Stations are built to stand on moving ice or rock, tested in a cold chamber and run on their dark-season power. GNSS receivers, snow and surface sensors are calibrated, nodes enrolled with their identities and kits packed for helicopter lifts. [Open the Station Builder](https://observatory.global/studio/builder/) 10. From order to operation · Install Install by helicopter Crews fly kits to each site, set stations on tripods that ride the ice surface or on rock anchors, drill stakes, mount cameras facing the glacier front and install river gauges below. Every part is photographed and recorded before the weather closes in. 11. From order to operation · Commission Commission with the surveys Each node proves its identity. Snow and surface readings are compared with manual surveys, GNSS positions with a reference, runoff with discharge measurements, and data are checked as they arrive by satellite. The station enters the network before winter. Acceptance is recorded with the owner before handover. 12. From order to operation · Operate Follow the melt Water managers see snow water equivalent and runoff by basin, hazard services see rapid glacier changes and lake levels, and scientists see daily mass balance and flow. Every value keeps its station and calibration. Every alert and action is kept on the record. 13. From order to operation · Maintain Reset stations each summer Each summer crews reset stations that the ice has carried or tilted, redrill stakes, swap sensors, check power and update software. The annual mass balance survey closes the year, and every change is kept with the station record. Maintenance history stays with each site for its whole life. [Book field services](https://observatory.global/contact/field-service/) 14. Data products For water, hazards and science Water managers and hydropower receive snow water equivalent by basin; scientists and glacier monitoring services receive mass balance and flow; hazard services receive rapid change and lake alerts; hydrologists receive runoff from glacier basins, each tied to station, altitude band and time. [See the data products](https://observatory.global/data-products/) 15. Evidence Agreed terms, essential variables Mass balance follows the internationally agreed glossary and methods, glaciers and snow are reported as essential climate variables, snow is measured to the instrument guide and cryosphere watch, and runoff is gauged to hydrological practice. Every value keeps its calibration and station record. Drawn againstGlossary of Glacier Mass Balance and Related Terms · GCOS-244 · WMO-No. 8 · WMO-No. 1160 · WMO-No. 168 16. What you get Hydrometeorological and flood observing networks Stream gauges, rain gauges, weather radar and automatic weather stations built to WMO practice, reporting through WIS 2.0 where the agency requires it. Delivered as hardware + software, managed service and build-operate-transfer, for national meteorological and hydrological services, river-basin agencies, utilities. [Talk to sales](https://observatory.global/contact/sales-enquiry/) 17. Next step Plan glaciers, snow and mountain water with us Tell us the site, the measurements and the rules it answers to. We reply with a survey proposal, a design and a scope for glaciers, snow and mountain water. An engineer replies with a survey proposal and a scope, and the plan grows from one site to the network you need, at your pace. [Plan a deployment](https://observatory.global/contact/deployment/) [Open the Station Builder](https://observatory.global/studio/builder/) [Open the Studio](https://observatory.global/studio/) **01** The place and its hazards ## Where it runs, and what can go wrong. Operating contextGlacier mass balance is measured and reported with internationally agreed terms and methods, glaciers, snow and permafrost are essential climate variables, snow is measured to the WMO instrument guide and the global cryosphere watch, and runoff from glacier basins is gauged to hydrological practice. Hazards - Glaciers retreating and thinning faster than records can follow - Snowpacks that melt earlier, shifting water supply - Glacier lake outbursts and ice avalanches - Stations buried, tilted or carried away by moving ice - Months of darkness and storms with no access **02** What must be measured ## What, where, how often, and under which rules. Each measurement names where it is taken, how often, and the public standard or regulation behind it. Numbers in the sources column open the cited source below. | Measurement | Where | Cadence | Sources | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Snow depth and snow water equivalent | Snow stations at several heights up the mountain | Hourly | 12 | | Glacier surface mass balance | Stakes, surface height sensors and weather on the glacier | Daily automatic, seasonal surveys | 34 | | Ice flow and surface height | GNSS on the glacier surface | Daily solutions | 3 | | Runoff from glacier basins | River gauges below the glacier | Every few minutes in melt season | 5 | | Weather on and near the ice | Weather stations on the glacier and in the forefield | Every few minutes | 1 | **03** The observation stack ## From one base unit to a network. The same blocks at every scale: instruments and a base node, a site with its radio, a fleet run as one, and a network federated on the open protocol. 1. **01** Base unit A station: weather and snow sensors, a surface height sensor, a GNSS receiver and a time-lapse camera on a sensor hub and node. [Build a station →](https://observatory.global/studio/builder/) 2. **02** Site A site: stations on the glacier, in the forefield and on the river below, with solar power and satellite backhaul. [Plan a site →](https://observatory.global/contact/deployment/) 3. **03** Fleet A mountain range's stations run as one network, with one plan for the short summer visits. [Managed offers →](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/solutions/) 4. **04** Network Services and scientists share snow, glacier and runoff data through WMO and the glacier monitoring community. [The open protocol →](https://observatory.global/protocol/) - **01** Automatic weather station (WMO class) - **02** Water level gauge - **03** GNSS geodetic station - **04** Fixed camera - **05** Sensor and instrument gateway - **06** Micro node (Nano) - **07** LEO flat-panel terminal - **08** 3GPP NTN terminal - **09** Solar array - **10** Pole Radio and links ### Satellite High mountain stations are beyond terrestrial networks; broadband satellite carries data and images. Radio and links ### Satellite A narrowband direct-to-device path keeps essential data flowing when snow buries the broadband antenna. Edge computeThe node computes snow water equivalent and surface lowering from its sensors, flags rapid changes that may signal a hazard, reduces images to what matters and sends compact reports when power or link is short. PowerSolar panels mounted steep to shed snow, with batteries for the dark season; stations drop to minimal power through long storms. **04** How it works ## From the instrument to the product. One observation's path, tier by tier, with the interface on every link and a bill of materials below; then how the one node grows to a site, a fleet and federated networks. Glaciers, snow and mountain water: data path – of 07 01 Instruments Measurement with sensor identity andcalibration 02 Gateway 03 Node – Wrap in an observation envelope with timequality– Measure quality and uncertainty, attachquality flags– Buffer locally (store-and-forward when thelink drops) 04 Backhaul Commit with transactional outbox andpublish, delivered at least once 05 Site Consumer inbox deduplicates and applieseach record once into governed data 06 Data store Governed product through API, map orexport, correction-aware 07 Products WMO WIS 2.0OGC SensorThings APIRINEX 08 Power and structure Supplies 12 V DC, 48 V DC to the fieldequipment 01 Automatic weather station (WMOclass) SDI-12 · RS-485 · Ethernet 02 Water level gauge SDI-12 · RS-485 · Ethernet 03 GNSS geodetic station Ethernet · GNSS antenna · 1PPS/10MHz 04 Fixed camera Ethernet 05 Sensor and instrument gateway SDI-12 · RS-485 · Analogue I/O ·Ethernet · USB 06 Micro node (Nano) Ethernet · USB · Analogue I/O ·RS-485 · CAN 07 LEO flat-panel terminal Ethernet 08 3GPP NTN terminal Ethernet · USB · RS-232 Site MQTT 5 with Sparkplug B Governed data store Versioned, correction-aware Snow water equivalent by basin Glacier mass balance and flow Rapid change and lake alerts Runoff from glacier basins 09 Solar array RS-485 10 Pole SDI-12 · SDI-12 SDI-12 · SDI-12 Ethernet Ethernet · MQTT 5 Ethernet · MQTT 5 Ethernet Ethernet Satellite IP 3GPP NTN From the instrument to the published product: each band is a tier, each connector names its interface, and the numbers match the bill of materials. Hover or focus a block to trace its path; scroll or step to follow one observation. | Item | Equipment | Data ports | Protocols | Power in | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 01 | **Automatic weather station (WMO class)** Automatic weather station built and sited to WMO-No. 8 instrument and siting classes, reporting WIGOS metadata. | SDI-12RS-485Ethernet | SDI-12, Modbus, MQTT 5, OGC SensorThings API | 12 V DC | | 02 | **Water level gauge** Radar, pressure or float gauge for river, lake, reservoir or tide level. | SDI-12RS-485Ethernet | SDI-12, Modbus, MQTT 5, OGC SensorThings API | 12 V DC | | 03 | **GNSS geodetic station** Continuously operating GNSS station on a stable monument for geodesy, deformation and atmospheric water vapour. | EthernetGNSS antenna1PPS/10 MHz | NTP with NTS | 12 V DC | | 04 | **Fixed camera** Fixed visible-light camera for site security, scene monitoring and machine vision. | Ethernet | RTSP with ONVIF profiles, MQTT 5 | PoE | | 05 | **Sensor and instrument gateway** Data logger and gateway that reads instruments on SDI-12, RS-485, analogue and Ethernet ports and publishes observations with calibration and time. | SDI-12RS-485Analogue I/OEthernetUSB | SDI-12, Modbus, MQTT 5, OGC SensorThings API, OGC API Connected Systems, OMA LwM2M | 12 V DC, PoE | | 06 | **Micro node (Nano)** Single-board or module-class node for sensor sites, gateways and low-power deployments. | EthernetUSBAnalogue I/ORS-485CAN | MQTT 5, OMA LwM2M, CoAP | PoE, 12 V DC, USB PD | | 07 | **LEO flat-panel terminal** Electronically steered flat-panel user terminal for low-Earth-orbit broadband constellations. | Ethernet | — | PoE, 48 V DC, AC mains | | 08 | **3GPP NTN terminal** Terminal using the 3GPP non-terrestrial network air interface (NR-NTN or IoT-NTN) to reach a satellite access node directly. | EthernetUSBRS-232 | 3GPP NR or IoT NTN, OMA LwM2M, MQTT 5 | 12 V DC, Internal battery | | 09 | **Solar array** PV modules with charge controller sized to the site's load and climate. | RS-485 | Modbus | — | | 10 | **Pole** Utility, street or dedicated pole with clamp positions. | — | — | — | How it scales 01 Instruments Arbitrary qualified sensors and instruments whosemeasurements are ingested with calibration, units,geometry, time, custody and uncertainty. ×n 02 Node The minimum useful deployable unit: server, ruggedappliance, radio node, sensor gateway, satelliteterminal, AI, scientific, vehicle or virtual node. Node Node agent 03 Site The minimum independently operable localgovernance and failure domain: one or more nodesplus local network, identity, policy, evidence,storage, products and operator surfaces. SITE Node Node Node ×n 04 Cluster An optional scale or specialisation domain forscheduling, shared storage, accelerators or datalocality. CLUSTER ×n 05 Fleet Coordinates plans, acknowledgements,convergence evidence, update campaigns andcorrection propagation across nodes and sites. FLEET Fleet controller ×n 06 Federation An exchange of products, capabilities, events orwork across approved, independently administeredtrust domains, using explicit trust, policy,data-locality, version and correction contracts. TRUST DOMAIN TRUST DOMAIN TRUST DOMAIN ×n Verifier Applications Data in the field Telemetry Control Data upstream Control Data upstream Control Exchange Evidence Events Exchange The smallest deployable unit is one node; the same unit is replicated to meet the demand. Nodes form a site, sites may form a cluster, sites and clusters are coordinated as a fleet, and fleets exchange across independently administered trust domains. Each plane is a separate channel with its own open binding. **Data in the field**: MQTT 5 with Sparkplug B; connectors for LoRaWAN, OPC UA and instrument buses. **Telemetry**: OpenTelemetry OTLP. **Control**: TLS 1.3 with mutual authentication; protobuf messages over gRPC or HTTP/2. **Data upstream**: At-least-once publication with repeat-safe keys over the control channel or NATS JetStream; QUIC MAY be used on lossy links. **Evidence**: DSSE-signed in-toto statements; SLSA provenance; SCITT transparency receipts. **Events**: Event envelopes mapped to CloudEvents 1.0; channels described in AsyncAPI 3. **Exchange**: OpenAPI 3.1; the OGC API family; SensorThings; STAC; WIS 2.0. **05** From order to operation ## Every step, from the first call to a running site. The same crew and the same record carry the work from scope to maintenance. 1. 01 Order Scope the water and the hazards The scope reads the basins, the water users downstream, glacier and snow hazards, existing stations and the access seasons. Nexus Observatory Inc. returns the station plan from valley to summit, power and satellite design, and a price per station and per year. 4 2. 02 Survey Survey in the melt season Crews and glaciologists visit candidate sites in the short melt season: stable ground or ice, avalanche paths, snow drifting, the sky view for satellite and the safest access. Findings are recorded with photographs and coordinates. Findings shape the kit for each site before anything is built. 1 3. 03 Permits Protected areas and helicopters Most glaciers lie in protected areas; work is approved by park and land authorities, helicopter flights are planned with aviation and wildlife rules, and every approval is kept with the station record. No crew goes to site before its approvals are in place. 4. 04 Build Build for ice and storms Stations are built to stand on moving ice or rock, tested in a cold chamber and run on their dark-season power. GNSS receivers, snow and surface sensors are calibrated, nodes enrolled with their identities and kits packed for helicopter lifts. 5. 05 Install Install by helicopter Crews fly kits to each site, set stations on tripods that ride the ice surface or on rock anchors, drill stakes, mount cameras facing the glacier front and install river gauges below. Every part is photographed and recorded before the weather closes in. 6. 06 Commission Commission with the surveys Each node proves its identity. Snow and surface readings are compared with manual surveys, GNSS positions with a reference, runoff with discharge measurements, and data are checked as they arrive by satellite. The station enters the network before winter. Acceptance is recorded with the owner before handover. 35 7. 07 Operate Follow the melt Water managers see snow water equivalent and runoff by basin, hazard services see rapid glacier changes and lake levels, and scientists see daily mass balance and flow. Every value keeps its station and calibration. Every alert and action is kept on the record. 2 8. 08 Maintain Reset stations each summer Each summer crews reset stations that the ice has carried or tilted, redrill stakes, swap sensors, check power and update software. The annual mass balance survey closes the year, and every change is kept with the station record. Maintenance history stays with each site for its whole life. 3 **06** Data products and integration ## What it delivers, to whom, and into which systems. Data products - **Snow water equivalent by basin** Water managers and hydropower - **Glacier mass balance and flow** Scientists and glacier monitoring services - **Rapid change and lake alerts** Hazard services - **Runoff from glacier basins** Hydrologists Integration - **Hydrological services** Snow and runoff data enter forecasting systems in their formats. - **Glacier monitoring** Mass balance is reported with the agreed terms and methods. - **Hazard services** Rapid change alerts reach the services that warn valleys below. Exchanged through WMO WIS 2.0, OGC SensorThings API, RINEX. **07** Questions buyers ask ## Before you scope it. Will stations survive on moving ice? They ride the ice surface and are reset each summer. How is data sent? By satellite, with a low-power second path. Can it warn of glacier lake outbursts? It flags rapid changes and lake levels for hazard services. Does it replace manual surveys? No. Surveys calibrate it and close each year. **08** Resources ## The sources behind this page. Public standards, regulations and guidance, cited where they apply. Each applies only where its jurisdiction or scope does. 1. **1** [WMO-No. 8: Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation](https://library.wmo.int/) World Meteorological Organization 2. **2** [WMO-No. 1160: Manual on the WMO Integrated Global Observing System](https://library.wmo.int/) World Meteorological Organization 3. **3** [Glossary of Glacier Mass Balance and Related Terms (IHP-VII Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 86)](https://unesdoc.unesco.org/) UNESCO International Hydrological Programme · 2011 4. **4** [GCOS-244: The 2022 GCOS Implementation Plan](https://gcos.wmo.int/) Global Climate Observing System · 2022 5. **5** [WMO-No. 168: Guide to Hydrological Practices](https://library.wmo.int/) World Meteorological Organization **09** Related ## Use cases and solutions. [Use case Avalanche detection siteDoppler radar, infrasound and geophones with a snow and wind station, feeding a road or resort control room.The full use case →](https://observatory.global/use-cases/avalanche-detection/) [Use case Low-cost stream gauge networkRadar or pressure level sensors with low-power radio and solar power, as a cheaper tier beside a national gauge network.The full use case →](https://observatory.global/use-cases/stream-gauge/) [Solution Hydrometeorological and flood observing networksStream gauges, rain gauges, weather radar and automatic weather stations built to WMO practice, reporting through WIS 2.0 where the agency requires it.Solutions for climate →](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/solutions/#hydromet-networks) [Solution Research site and instrument servicesSite power, connectivity, timing and operations for telescopes, flux towers and research stations.Solutions for climate →](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/solutions/#research-site-services) [Solution Satellite and non-terrestrial backhaulLEO and GEO backhaul, 3GPP non-terrestrial integration and direct-to-device fallbacks for remote sites.Solutions for climate →](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/solutions/#ntn-backhaul) **10** Climate: specialized fields ## Other fields of this industry. [Specialized field Greenhouse gas monitoringTall-tower and urban stations that measure carbon dioxide and methane to the global calibration scales, so emissions estimates and policies can be checked against the atmosphere.The full field →](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/greenhouse-gases/) [Specialized field Ecosystem carbon and water fluxesEddy covariance towers that measure how much carbon, water and energy forests, crops and wetlands exchange with the air, for climate science, carbon accounting and land management.The full field →](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/ecosystem-fluxes/) [Specialized field Climate reference stationsLong-term surface stations built to reference standards, with redundant sensors and complete metadata, so the climate record they keep is trusted for decades.The full field →](https://observatory.global/industries/climate/climate-reference/) ### Bring us the site. 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