{"id":21,"date":"2026-11-02T11:40:47","date_gmt":"2026-11-02T11:40:47","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/observatory.global\/earth-observation\/explainer\/"},"modified":"2026-11-02T11:43:56","modified_gmt":"2026-11-02T11:43:56","slug":"explainer","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/observatory.global\/earth-observation\/explainer\/","title":{"rendered":"Earth observation &#038; GeoAI: explainer"},"content":{"rendered":"<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/kit-fonts.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/kit.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/i18n.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/chrome.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/x-core.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/system\/3d\/3d.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/view-x-eo.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<div class=\"nxo-view\" data-nxo-view=\"x-eo\" data-nxo-bundle=\"99e42e7aa6ec\"><div class=\"nxo-ssr\" data-nxo-snap> <main><section><p><b>3.6\u00b0 N<\/b> <em>\u00b7 705 km \u00b7 swath 185 km<\/em><\/p><p><b>Inclination 98.21\u00b0<\/b> <em>\u00b7 retrograde, sun-synchronous<\/em><\/p><p><b>Satellite<\/b><\/p><p><b>Footprint<\/b><\/p> <p><b>Mapping drone<\/b><\/p><p><b>L0<\/b> <em>\u00b7 Raw instrument counts<\/em><\/p><p><b>L1<\/b> <em>\u00b7 Calibrated, geolocated<\/em><\/p><p><b>L2<\/b> <em>\u00b7 Analysis-ready: reflectance or backscatter<\/em><\/p><p><b>L3<\/b> <em>\u00b7 Composite of many acquisitions<\/em><\/p><p><b>Catalog<\/b><\/p><p><b>Collection<\/b><\/p><p><b>Item \u00b7 one scene<\/b><\/p><p><b>Assets \u00b7 COG bands, metadata<\/b><\/p><p><b>COG overviews<\/b> <em>\u00b7 coarse to full resolution<\/em><\/p><p><b>Ground station<\/b> <em>\u00b7 tracking antenna<\/em><\/p><p><b>Bow Valley, Alberta<\/b><\/p> <nav aria-label=\"Chapters\"><span>01<\/span><span>02<\/span><span>03<\/span><span>04<\/span><span>05<\/span><span>06<\/span><span>07<\/span><\/nav> <p>Intro.<\/p> <article><p>Earth observation &amp; GeoAI \u00b7 Explainer<\/p> <div role=\"heading\" aria-level=\"1\" class=\"nxo-ssr-h1\">From orbit to a tile you can query.<\/div> <p>Seven steps of an Earth-observation chain, each worked live: the orbit that sets the revisit, the geometry that sets the resolution, the pass that sets the data volume, the processing levels, a change-detection pass, a drone campaign and the catalogue that serves it. Every number below is computed live from your inputs.<\/p> <nav aria-label=\"Chapters\"><span><b>01<\/b>Orbit and revisit<\/span><span><b>02<\/b>Acquisition geometry<\/span><span><b>03<\/b>Downlink<\/span><span><b>04<\/b>Processing levels<\/span><span><b>05<\/b>GeoAI change detection<\/span><span><b>06<\/b>Drone campaign<\/span><span><b>07<\/b>Catalogue and tiles<\/span><\/nav> <\/article> <article><p><b>01<\/b> \u00b7 Orbit and revisit<\/p> <h2>Altitude sets the inclination, the period and the revisit.<\/h2> <p>A sun-synchronous orbit precesses with the Sun, about 0.9856\u00b0 a day, so every pass crosses a latitude at the same local time. The Earth&#8217;s oblateness supplies the precession, so altitude fixes the inclination: cos i = \u22122\u03a9\u0307a<sup>7\/2<\/sup> \/ (3J\u2082R<sub>e<\/sub>\u00b2\u221a\u03bc). Kepler gives the period, T = 2\u03c0\u221a(a\u00b3\/\u03bc). With the swath and the orbits a day, that sets how long the equator takes to cover at nadir.<\/p> <dl><dt>Sun-synchronous inclination<\/dt><dd>98.21\u00b0<\/dd> <dt>Orbital period<\/dt><dd>98.9 min<\/dd> <dt>Orbits per day<\/dt><dd>14.56<\/dd> <dt>Track spacing at the equator<\/dt><dd>2,759 km<\/dd> <dt>Equator fully covered every<\/dt><dd>14.9 days<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>02<\/b> \u00b7 Acquisition geometry<\/p> <h2>Radar measures range. Optics measure angle.<\/h2> <p>A synthetic aperture radar looks sideways and resolves the ground by the timing of its echoes, so its ground resolution improves as the incidence angle grows. An optical imager resolves by angle, so its pixels stretch as it points away from nadir. Radar slant-range resolution is c\/2B and its ground-range resolution divides that by sin \u03b8; the optical across-track pixel grows as 1\/cos\u00b2\u03b8.<\/p> <p>Sensor<\/p> <p>Chirp bandwidth<\/p> <dl><dt>Slant-range resolution<\/dt><dd>1.50 m<\/dd> <dt>Ground-range resolution<\/dt><dd>2.61 m<\/dd> <dt>Slant range to the scene<\/dt><dd>861 km<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>03<\/b> \u00b7 Downlink<\/p> <h2>The elevation mask decides how much data comes down.<\/h2> <p>A ground station can only work a satellite above its elevation mask: terrain, buildings and the atmosphere set it. The pass is the arc of the orbit above that cone; its length times the link rate is the data volume. The overhead pass is the longest: the Earth central angle \u03bb = arccos(R<sub>e<\/sub> cos \u03b5 \/ (R<sub>e<\/sub> + h)) \u2212 \u03b5 sets it, and every pass off the ground track is shorter.<\/p> <p>Downlink rate<\/p> <dl><dt>Longest pass (overhead)<\/dt><dd>11.7 min<\/dd> <dt>Slant range at the mask<\/dt><dd>2,574 km<\/dd> <dt>Data per pass<\/dt><dd>52.5 GB<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>04<\/b> \u00b7 Processing levels<\/p> <h2>From raw counts to analysis-ready data.<\/h2> <p>Level 0 is the instrument&#8217;s raw stream. Level 1 is calibrated and located. Level 2 is a physical quantity per pixel, surface reflectance or backscatter, and is analysis-ready when it meets the CEOS ARD requirements. Level 3 composites many acquisitions into one. A scene&#8217;s volume is its pixels times bands times bit depth.<\/p> <p>Scene width<\/p> <small>Steps: 1 \u00b7 3 \u00b7 10 \u00b7 20 \u00b7 30 \u00b7 60 m<\/small> <p>Bands \u00d7 bit depth<\/p> <dl><dt>Pixels per band<\/dt><dd>100.0 M<\/dd> <dt>Raw volume per scene<\/dt><dd>1.95 GB<\/dd> <dt>As a COG, 2:1 lossless<\/dt><dd>975.0 MB<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>05<\/b> \u00b7 GeoAI change detection<\/p> <h2>A threshold trades missed changes for false alarms.<\/h2> <p>On the Bow Valley terrain, slope failures are seeded on ground steeper than 32\u00b0, and a detector scores every analysis cell (369 \u00d7 590 m). Raise the threshold and false alarms fall while misses rise. Red cells are detections; outlined cells are the seeded failures.<\/p> <dl><dt>Seeded slope failures<\/dt><dd>66<\/dd> <dt>Detections<\/dt><dd>78<\/dd> <dt>Precision \u00b7 recall<\/dt><dd>68 % \u00b7 80 %<\/dd> <dt>F1 score<\/dt><dd>0.74<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>06<\/b> \u00b7 Drone campaign<\/p> <h2>Ground sample distance is a flight plan decision.<\/h2> <p>For a mapping camera, the ground sample distance is sensor width times altitude over focal length times image width. Altitude and overlap then set the line spacing, the photo count and the time in the air.<\/p> <p>Camera class<\/p> <dl><dt>Ground sample distance<\/dt><dd>2.74 cm<\/dd> <dt>Line spacing<\/dt><dd>37.5 m<\/dd> <dt>Photos per km\u00b2<\/dt><dd>1,067<\/dd> <dt>Flight time per km\u00b2 at 10 m\/s<\/dt><dd>44.4 min<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>07<\/b> \u00b7 Catalogue and tiles<\/p> <h2>STAC finds the scene. COG serves only the pixels you ask for.<\/h2> <p>A SpatioTemporal Asset Catalog describes every scene as an item with assets. A Cloud-Optimized GeoTIFF stores overviews and internal tiles, so a client reads a few kilobytes over HTTP range requests instead of the whole file. At zoom z a Web Mercator pixel spans 2\u03c0R \/ (256 \u00b7 2<sup>z<\/sup>) at the equator.<\/p> <dl><dt>Map pixel at the equator<\/dt><dd>38.2 m<\/dd> <dt>Overview read for a 10 m image<\/dt><dd>Overview 1 (20 m)<\/dd> <dt>Tiles for a 1024 \u00d7 768 view<\/dt><dd>20<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <\/section> <\/main> <footer><p><a href=\"\/\">Nexus Observatory<\/a><b>Earth observation &amp; GeoAI<\/b>. The ground, measured and modelled.<a href=\"\/contact\/\">Talk to us<\/a><\/p><p>Earth observation &amp; GeoAI<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/ground-segment\/\">Ground segment<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/drones-and-imagery\/\">Drones and imagery<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/site-twins\/\">Site twins<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/geoai\/\">GeoAI<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Technologies<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/eo\/platforms-and-orbits\/\">Platforms and orbits<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/eo\/optical-spectral-and-thermal-sensors\/\">Optical, spectral and thermal sensors<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/gis\/reference-systems-and-geodesy\/\">Reference systems and geodesy<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/gis\/vector-raster-and-array-formats\/\">Vector, raster and array formats<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Industries<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/industries\/cities\/\">Cities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/resilience\/\">Civil resilience<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/humanitarian\/\">Humanitarian<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/climate\/\">Climate<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/water\/\">Water<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/nature\/\">Nature<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/oceans\/\">Oceans<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Service platforms<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/protocol\/\">Observatory Protocol<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/grid-services\/\">Protocol &amp; Grid<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/software\/\">Software<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/hardware\/\">Hardware &amp; power<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/\">Connectivity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/edge-ai\/\">Edge compute &amp; AI<\/a><\/li><\/ul> <p>\u00a9 2026 Nexus Observatory Inc.<\/p><nav aria-label=\"Legal\"><a href=\"\/legal\/privacy\/\">Privacy<\/a><a href=\"\/legal\/terms\/\">Terms<\/a><a href=\"\/legal\/accessibility\/\">Accessibility<\/a><a href=\"\/privacy-choices\/\">Cookie settings<\/a><a href=\"\/credits\/\">Data credits<\/a><\/nav> <\/footer>\n<\/div><!--\/nxo-ssr--><main>\n<section class=\"story\" id=\"story\" aria-label=\"Earth observation explainer\">\n  <div class=\"stage\" id=\"stage\">\n    <canvas id=\"c\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"3D scene for the current chapter. Drag or use the arrow keys to turn it.\"><\/canvas>\n    <div class=\"hud\" id=\"hud\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"loading\" id=\"loading\">Loading the scene\u2026<\/div>\n    <nav class=\"rail\" id=\"rail\" aria-label=\"Chapters\"><\/nav>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"chapters\" id=\"chapters\">\n    <article class=\"ch intro\" id=\"top\">\n      <div class=\"in\">\n        <div class=\"hrow\"><span class=\"eyebrow\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI \u00b7 Explainer<\/span><\/div>\n        <h1>From orbit to a tile you can query.<\/h1>\n        <p class=\"lede\">The Earth-observation chain, step by step, each worked live: the orbit that sets the revisit, the geometry that sets the resolution, the pass that sets the data volume, the processing levels, a change-detection pass, a drone campaign and the catalogue that serves it. Every number below is computed live from your inputs.<\/p>\n        <nav class=\"toc\" id=\"toc\" aria-label=\"Chapters\"><\/nav>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"orbit\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>01<\/b> \u00b7 Orbit and revisit<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Altitude sets the inclination, the period and the revisit.<\/h2>\n      <p>A sun-synchronous orbit precesses with the Sun, about 0.9856\u00b0 a day, so every pass crosses a latitude at the same local time. The Earth&#8217;s oblateness supplies the precession, so altitude fixes the inclination: cos i = \u22122\u03a9\u0307a<sup>7\/2<\/sup> \/ (3J\u2082R<sub>e<\/sub>\u00b2\u221a\u03bc). Kepler gives the period, T = 2\u03c0\u221a(a\u00b3\/\u03bc). With the swath and the orbits a day, that sets how long the equator takes to cover at nadir.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"alt\">Altitude<\/label><output id=\"altO\" for=\"alt\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"alt\" min=\"400\" max=\"900\" step=\"5\" value=\"705\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"swath\">Swath width<\/label><output id=\"swathO\" for=\"swath\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"swath\" min=\"20\" max=\"300\" step=\"5\" value=\"185\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Sun-synchronous inclination<\/dt><dd id=\"oInc\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Orbital period<\/dt><dd id=\"oPer\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Orbits per day<\/dt><dd id=\"oRev\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Track spacing at the equator<\/dt><dd id=\"oSp\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Equator fully covered every<\/dt><dd id=\"oCov\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"geometry\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>02<\/b> \u00b7 Acquisition geometry<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Radar measures range. Optics measure angle.<\/h2>\n      <p>A synthetic aperture radar looks sideways and resolves the ground by the timing of its echoes, so its ground resolution improves as the incidence angle grows. An optical imager resolves by angle, so its pixels stretch as it points away from nadir. Radar slant-range resolution is c\/2B and its ground-range resolution divides that by sin \u03b8; the optical across-track pixel grows as 1\/cos\u00b2\u03b8.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"modeL\">Sensor<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"modeL\" id=\"mode\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"sar\" aria-pressed=\"true\">SAR<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"opt\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Optical<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"look\">Incidence angle<\/label><output id=\"lookO\" for=\"look\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"look\" min=\"10\" max=\"50\" step=\"1\" value=\"35\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\" id=\"bwRow\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"bwL\">Chirp bandwidth<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg sm full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"bwL\" id=\"bw\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"50\" aria-pressed=\"false\">50 MHz<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"100\" aria-pressed=\"true\">100 MHz<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"300\" aria-pressed=\"false\">300 MHz<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\" id=\"gsdRow\" hidden><span class=\"lab\" id=\"g0L\">Nadir pixel<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg sm full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"g0L\" id=\"g0\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0.5\" aria-pressed=\"false\">0.5 m<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"3\" aria-pressed=\"true\">3 m<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"10\" aria-pressed=\"false\">10 m<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"30\" aria-pressed=\"false\">30 m<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt id=\"gA\">Slant-range resolution<\/dt><dd id=\"gAv\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt id=\"gB\">Ground-range resolution<\/dt><dd id=\"gBv\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Slant range to the scene<\/dt><dd id=\"gC\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"downlink\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>03<\/b> \u00b7 Downlink<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>The elevation mask decides how much data comes down.<\/h2>\n      <p>A ground station can only work a satellite above its elevation mask: terrain, buildings and the atmosphere set it. The pass is the arc of the orbit above that cone; its length times the link rate is the data volume. The overhead pass is the longest: the Earth central angle \u03bb = arccos(R<sub>e<\/sub> cos \u03b5 \/ (R<sub>e<\/sub> + h)) \u2212 \u03b5 sets it, and every pass off the ground track is shorter.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"mask\">Elevation mask<\/label><output id=\"maskO\" for=\"mask\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"mask\" min=\"0\" max=\"25\" step=\"1\" value=\"5\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"rateL\">Downlink rate<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg sm full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"rateL\" id=\"rate\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"150\" aria-pressed=\"false\">150 Mbit\/s<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"600\" aria-pressed=\"true\">600 Mbit\/s<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"1200\" aria-pressed=\"false\">1.2 Gbit\/s<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Longest pass (overhead)<\/dt><dd id=\"dDur\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Slant range at the mask<\/dt><dd id=\"dRng\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Data per pass<\/dt><dd id=\"dVol\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"levels\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>04<\/b> \u00b7 Processing levels<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>From raw counts to analysis-ready data.<\/h2>\n      <p>Level 0 is the instrument&#8217;s raw stream. Level 1 is calibrated and located. Level 2 is a physical quantity per pixel, surface reflectance or backscatter, and is analysis-ready when it meets the CEOS ARD requirements. Level 3 composites many acquisitions into one. A scene&#8217;s volume is its pixels times bands times bit depth.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"sceneL\">Scene width<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg sm full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"sceneL\" id=\"scene\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"10\" aria-pressed=\"false\">10 km<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"30\" aria-pressed=\"false\">30 km<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"100\" aria-pressed=\"true\">100 km<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"185\" aria-pressed=\"false\">185 km<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"pgsd\">Pixel size<\/label><output id=\"pgsdO\" for=\"pgsd\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"pgsd\" min=\"0\" max=\"5\" step=\"1\" value=\"2\"><small>Steps: 1 \u00b7 3 \u00b7 10 \u00b7 20 \u00b7 30 \u00b7 60 m<\/small><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"bandsL\">Bands \u00d7 bit depth<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg sm full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"bandsL\" id=\"bands\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"4x12\" aria-pressed=\"false\">4 \u00d7 12 bit<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"13x12\" aria-pressed=\"true\">13 \u00d7 12 bit<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"2x16\" aria-pressed=\"false\">2 \u00d7 16 bit (SAR)<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Pixels per band<\/dt><dd id=\"pPix\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Raw volume per scene<\/dt><dd id=\"pRaw\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>As a COG, 2:1 lossless<\/dt><dd id=\"pCog\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"change\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>05<\/b> \u00b7 GeoAI change detection<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>A threshold trades missed changes for false alarms.<\/h2>\n      <p>On the Bow Valley terrain, slope failures are seeded on ground steeper than 32\u00b0, and a detector scores every analysis cell (<span id=\"cellsz\">about 370 \u00d7 590 m<\/span>). Raise the threshold and false alarms fall while misses rise. Red cells are detections; outlined cells are the seeded failures.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"thr\">Detection threshold<\/label><output id=\"thrO\" for=\"thr\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"thr\" min=\"0.3\" max=\"0.9\" step=\"0.01\" value=\"0.6\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Seeded slope failures<\/dt><dd id=\"cTru\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Detections<\/dt><dd id=\"cDet\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Precision \u00b7 recall<\/dt><dd id=\"cPR\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>F1 score<\/dt><dd id=\"cF1\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"drone\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>06<\/b> \u00b7 Drone campaign<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Ground sample distance is a flight plan decision.<\/h2>\n      <p>For a mapping camera, the ground sample distance is sensor width times altitude over focal length times image width. Altitude and overlap then set the line spacing, the photo count and the time in the air.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"agl\">Altitude above ground<\/label><output id=\"aglO\" for=\"agl\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"agl\" min=\"40\" max=\"120\" step=\"5\" value=\"100\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"camL\">Camera class<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg sm full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"camL\" id=\"cam\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0\" aria-pressed=\"true\">1-inch 20 MP<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"1\" aria-pressed=\"false\">APS-C 24 MP<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"2\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Full frame 45 MP<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"ovl\">Front and side overlap<\/label><output id=\"ovlO\" for=\"ovl\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"ovl\" min=\"60\" max=\"85\" step=\"1\" value=\"75\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Ground sample distance<\/dt><dd id=\"uGsd\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Line spacing<\/dt><dd id=\"uSp\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Photos per km\u00b2<\/dt><dd id=\"uImg\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Flight time per km\u00b2 at 10 m\/s<\/dt><dd id=\"uT\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"catalogue\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>07<\/b> \u00b7 Catalogue and tiles<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>STAC finds the scene. COG serves only the pixels you ask for.<\/h2>\n      <p>A SpatioTemporal Asset Catalog describes every scene as an item with assets. A Cloud-Optimized GeoTIFF stores overviews and internal tiles, so a client reads a few kilobytes over HTTP range requests instead of the whole file. At zoom z a Web Mercator pixel spans 2\u03c0R \/ (256 \u00b7 2<sup>z<\/sup>) at the equator.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"zoom\">Map zoom level<\/label><output id=\"zoomO\" for=\"zoom\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"zoom\" min=\"6\" max=\"18\" step=\"1\" value=\"12\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Map pixel at the equator<\/dt><dd id=\"sPx\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Overview read for a 10 m image<\/dt><dd id=\"sOv\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Tiles for a 1024 \u00d7 768 view<\/dt><dd id=\"sTl\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"scale\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>08<\/b> \u00b7 Scale<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>One sensor over one site, then the whole planet.<\/h2>\n      <p>The smallest unit is one sensor over one site: a drone, a mast camera or a single satellite pass. A site pairs it with instruments on the ground for calibration; a cluster shares a ground station and processing; a region assembles mosaics; the global layer combines constellations and open missions. Analysis-ready data, processed to a common minimum, is what lets scenes from different missions be stacked without rework.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n><a href=\"https:\/\/ceos.org\/ard\/\" rel=\"noopener\">CEOS, Analysis Ready Data (CEOS-ARD)<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"calval\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>09<\/b> \u00b7 Calibration and validation<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Ground truth keeps the pixels honest.<\/h2>\n      <p>Raw counts become reflectance through radiometric calibration, are placed on the map by geometric correction, and are then validated against measurements on the ground before a product is released. The quality assurance framework for Earth observation asks that every product carry a quality indicator traceable to reference standards, so a user knows how far to trust each pixel.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>CEOS, A Quality Assurance Framework for Earth Observation (QA4EO)<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"processing\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>10<\/b> \u00b7 Processing<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Processed at scale, reprocessed when the science improves.<\/h2>\n      <p>Every scene runs through the same processing chain, and a failed step is retried automatically before anyone is called. When an algorithm or calibration improves, the whole archive is reprocessed, so a time series never mixes old and new methods. Collection-based management of long missions does exactly this: each collection is processed consistently and older collections are retired on a published schedule.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n><a href=\"https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/landsat-missions\/landsat-collection-2\" rel=\"noopener\">U.S. Geological Survey, Landsat Collection 2<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"lifecycle\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>11<\/b> \u00b7 Lifecycle<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>From a tasking request to an archive of decades.<\/h2>\n      <p>A request is tasked, the scene is acquired, processed, published and archived, and the archive becomes the baseline the next request is compared against. Open missions publish on a free, full and open basis, so commissioned imagery and public imagery can live in one archive and be compared over decades, provided each keeps its own licence attached.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 1159\/2013, Copernicus data and information access conditions<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" id=\"asks\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>12<\/b> \u00b7 Buyers\u2019 questions<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>What to ask before buying imagery or analytics.<\/h2>\n      <p>How often is the place seen, and at what resolution? How soon after acquisition does the product arrive? Is it analysis-ready, calibrated and validated? Under which licence can derived products be shared? Can the archive leave with you in open formats such as cloud-optimised GeoTIFF with a catalogue? A product that meets a published readiness specification answers several of these at once.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>OGC Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF Standard; <a href=\"https:\/\/ceos.org\/ard\/\" rel=\"noopener\">CEOS, Analysis Ready Data (CEOS-ARD)<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n<\/main><noscript><nav class=\"nxo-related\" aria-labelledby=\"nxo-related-h\"><div class=\"w\"><p class=\"eyebrow\">Across the network<\/p><h2 id=\"nxo-related-h\">Related on Nexus Observatory<\/h2><div class=\"nxo-related-g\"><section><h3>Earth observation &amp; GeoAI<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI overview<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/ground-segment\/\">Ground segment<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/drones-and-imagery\/\">Drones and imagery<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/site-twins\/\">Site twins<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/geoai\/\">GeoAI<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/areas\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI: areas<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/technologies\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI: technologies<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/architecture\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI: architecture<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/industries\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI: industries served<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/resources\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI: resources<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Industries served<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/industries\/cities\/\">Cities and urban systems<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/resilience\/\">Critical infrastructure and civil resilience<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/humanitarian\/\">Humanitarian and development<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/climate\/\">Climate and atmosphere<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/water\/\">Water and hydrology<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/nature\/\">Forests, land and biodiversity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/oceans\/\">Oceans, coasts and maritime<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/agriculture\/\">Agriculture and food<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/energy\/\">Energy and utilities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/telecom\/\">Telecommunications and digital infrastructure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/transport\/\">Transport and logistics<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/infrastructure\/\">Construction and infrastructure assets<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/mining\/\">Mining and resources<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/industry\/\">Manufacturing and industrial sites<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/research\/\">Science and research<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/insurance\/\">Insurance and finance<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Technology domains<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/eo\/\">Remote sensing and Earth observation<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/gis\/\">GIS, maps and GeoAI<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Related platforms<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/protocol\/\">Observatory Protocol<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/digital-twins\/\">Digital twins and simulation<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/\">Connectivity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/data-products\/\">Data &amp; licensing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/field-services\/\">Field services<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/space\/\">Space and satellite systems<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/hardware\/\">Hardware &amp; power<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/edge-ai\/\">Edge compute &amp; AI<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><\/div><\/div><\/nav><footer class=\"legal\"><div class=\"w\"><div>\u00a9 2026 Nexus Observatory Inc.<\/div><div><b>Legal<\/b><br><a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/privacy\/\">Privacy notice<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/terms\/\">Terms of use<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/cookies\/\">Cookie policy<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/accessibility\/\">Accessibility<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/official-languages\/\">Official languages<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/notices\/\">Notices<\/a><\/div><div><b>Company<\/b><br><a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/about\/\">About<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/consortium\/\">Open governance<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/contact\/\">Contact<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/footer><\/noscript><\/div>\n<script type=\"application\/json\" id=\"nxo-config\">{\"base\":\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/\",\"search\":\"\",\"view\":\"x-eo\",\"links\":{\"$comment\":\"Network link map with the industry sites as main-site hubs (docs\/28 option): industry pages under \/industries\/{id}\/, platforms on their subsites. 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