{"id":21,"date":"2026-11-02T11:40:42","date_gmt":"2026-11-02T11:40:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/observatory.global\/connectivity\/explainer\/"},"modified":"2026-11-02T11:43:41","modified_gmt":"2026-11-02T11:43:41","slug":"explainer","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/observatory.global\/connectivity\/explainer\/","title":{"rendered":"Connectivity: explainer"},"content":{"rendered":"<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/kit-fonts.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/kit.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/i18n.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/chrome.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/x1.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/system\/3d\/3d.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<link rel=\"stylesheet\" href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/view-x-connectivity.css?ver=99e42e7aa6ec\">\n<div class=\"nxo-view\" data-nxo-view=\"x-connectivity\" data-nxo-bundle=\"99e42e7aa6ec\"><div class=\"nxo-ssr\" data-nxo-snap> <main><section><p><b>A<\/b> 030\u00b0<\/p><p><b>B<\/b> 150\u00b0<\/p><p><b>C<\/b> 270\u00b0<\/p><p>Boresight \u00b7 <b>358 m<\/b><\/p><p>Upper \u22123 dB \u00b7 above the horizon<\/p><p>Lower \u22123 dB \u00b7 158 m<\/p><p>Antenna \u00b7 <b>25 m<\/b> \u00b7 tilt 4\u00b0<\/p> <p>0 m<\/p><p>500 m<\/p><p>1,000 m<\/p><p>1,500 m<\/p><p>2,000 m<\/p><p>Site \u00b7 <b>1,525 m<\/b><\/p><p>NR slot \u00b7 <b>0.500 ms<\/b> \u00b7 L1 55%<\/p><p>Free for inference \u00b7 45%<\/p> <p>Mask \u00b7 25\u00b0<\/p><p><b>GNSS<\/b><\/p><p><b>T-GM<\/b> \u00b7 PRTC-A<\/p><p>T-BC 1<\/p><p>T-BC 2<\/p><p>T-BC 3<\/p><p>T-BC 4<\/p><p><b>Radio<\/b> \u00b7 T-TSC<\/p><p>T-BC 6<\/p><p>T-BC 7<\/p><p>T-BC 8<\/p><p>T-BC 9<\/p><p>T-BC 10<\/p><p>T-BC 11<\/p><p>500 MHz<\/p><p>700 MHz<\/p><p>1 GHz<\/p><p>2 GHz<\/p><p>3 GHz<\/p><p>5 GHz<\/p><p>7 GHz<\/p><p>10 GHz<\/p><p>20 GHz<\/p><p>30 GHz<\/p><p><b>n77<\/b> \u00b7 3900\u20133980 MHz<\/p><p>27.5\u201328.35 GHz<\/p><p><b>n77 \/ n78<\/b> \u00b7 3800 MHz band 3650\u20133900 MHz<\/p><p>3650\u20133700 MHz<\/p><p>902\u2013928 MHz<\/p><p>2.4 GHz<\/p><p>5925\u20137125 MHz<\/p> <nav aria-label=\"Chapters\"><span>01<\/span><span>02<\/span><span>03<\/span><span>04<\/span><span>05<\/span><span>06<\/span><span>07<\/span><span>08<\/span><\/nav> <p>Site \u00b7 1,525 m<\/p> <article><p>Connectivity \u00b7 Explainer<\/p><p>Interactive<\/p> <div role=\"heading\" aria-level=\"1\" class=\"nxo-ssr-h1\">One site, eight decisions.<\/div> <p>A private 5G and AI-RAN site in the Bow Valley, Alberta, from sector azimuth to the spectrum licence. Move the controls and the radio, the terrain and the orbit answer in real numbers.<\/p> <dl><dt>Tile<\/dt><dd>29.4 \u00d7 46.9 km<\/dd> <dt>Relief<\/dt><dd>1,296\u20133,451 m<\/dd> <dt>Analysis grid<\/dt><dd>256 \u00d7 256<\/dd> <dt>Chapters<\/dt><dd>8<\/dd> <\/dl> <nav aria-label=\"Chapters\"><span><b>01<\/b>Sectors<\/span><span><b>02<\/b>Tilt<\/span><span><b>03<\/b>Coverage<\/span><span><b>04<\/b>AI-RAN<\/span><span><b>05<\/b>Backhaul from orbit<\/span><span><b>06<\/b>Timing<\/span><span><b>07<\/b>Spectrum route<\/span><span><b>08<\/b>Sensors over LPWAN<\/span><\/nav> <\/article> <article><p><b>01<\/b> \u00b7 Sectors<\/p><p>3 \u00d7 120\u00b0<\/p> <h2>Three sectors, one azimuth plan.<\/h2> <p>A macro site splits the circle into three sectors of massive-MIMO panels, 120\u00b0 apart, each with a 70\u00b0 half-power beam that falls off as 12(\u03c6\/70\u00b0)\u00b2 dB to a 25 dB floor. The plan turns as one: set sector A and the others follow.<\/p> <dl><dt>Boresights A \u00b7 B \u00b7 C<\/dt><dd>030\u00b0 \u00b7 150\u00b0 \u00b7 270\u00b0<\/dd> <dt>Half-power beamwidth<\/dt><dd>70\u00b0<\/dd> <dt>Crossover between sectors<\/dt><dd>60\u00b0 off boresight \u00b7 8.8 dB down<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>02<\/b> \u00b7 Tilt<\/p><p>Section<\/p> <h2>Tilt decides where the beam lands.<\/h2> <p>The section cuts through sector A, heights stretched tenfold. Downtilt aims the main lobe at the ground at h \/ tan(tilt); the half-power edges of the 10\u00b0 vertical beam, five degrees either side, set the inner and outer rings of strong signal.<\/p> <dl><dt>Boresight meets the ground<\/dt><dd>358 m<\/dd> <dt>Upper half-power edge<\/dt><dd>above the horizon<\/dd> <dt>Lower half-power edge<\/dt><dd>158 m<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>03<\/b> \u00b7 Coverage<\/p><p>Bow Valley<\/p> <h2>A link budget on real terrain.<\/h2> <p>Every cell the antenna can see gets EIRP plus the sector pattern minus free-space loss, 20 log d + 20 log f \u2212 147.55 dB. Rays run over the valley&#8217;s own relief and the Earth&#8217;s curve; cells in the mountains&#8217; shadow stay dark.<\/p> <p>Place on<\/p> <small>Or click the terrain.<\/small> <p>Band<\/p> <dl><dt>Area above \u2212100 dBm<\/dt><dd>106.8 km\u00b2<\/dd> <dt>Tile in line of sight<\/dt><dd>7.8 %<\/dd> <dt>Farthest cell above \u2212100 dBm<\/dt><dd>27.1 km<\/dd> <dt>Free-space loss at 1 km<\/dt><dd>103.3 dB<\/dd> <dt>Site<\/dt><dd>51.414\u00b0 N, 116.173\u00b0 W \u00b7 1,525 m<\/dd> <\/dl> <p>above \u221285 dBm<\/p><p>\u221285 to \u2212100<\/p><p>\u2212100 to \u2212110<\/p> <\/article> <article><p><b>04<\/b> \u00b7 AI-RAN<\/p><p>NR slot<\/p> <h2>The radio&#8217;s slot, and what is left for AI.<\/h2> <p>In AI-RAN one pool of accelerators runs the radio&#8217;s Layer 1 and the models. Numerology \u03bc sets 15\u00b72^\u03bc kHz subcarriers and 2^\u03bc slots per millisecond, 14 symbols each. Every slot must finish its L1 work on time; what it leaves idle serves inference.<\/p> <p>Numerology \u03bc<\/p> <dl><dt>Slot<\/dt><dd>0.500 ms<\/dd> <dt>Slots per second<\/dt><dd>2,000<\/dd> <dt>Symbol with cyclic prefix, mean<\/dt><dd>35.7 \u00b5s<\/dd> <dt>Accelerator time for inference<\/dt><dd>450 ms per second \u00b7 225 \u00b5s per slot<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>05<\/b> \u00b7 Backhaul from orbit<\/p><p>LEO<\/p> <h2>A LEO pass, timed from the orbit.<\/h2> <p>Where fibre stops, the site backhauls through a low-Earth-orbit terminal. Altitude fixes the period, T = 2\u03c0\u221a(a\u00b3\/\u03bc), how long one satellite stays above the terminal&#8217;s elevation mask, and the delay of every hop at the speed of light.<\/p> <p>Orbit altitude<\/p> <dl><dt>Orbital period<\/dt><dd>95.5 min<\/dd> <dt>Overhead pass above the mask<\/dt><dd>4 min 29 s<\/dd> <dt>Slant range at the mask<\/dt><dd>1,123 km<\/dd> <dt>One-way delay, zenith to mask<\/dt><dd>1.83 \u2192 3.75 ms<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <article><p><b>06<\/b> \u00b7 Timing<\/p><p>PTP<\/p> <h2>One clock, held to the budget.<\/h2> <p>TDD radios share phase. A GNSS-locked grandmaster, a PRTC-A within 100 ns, hands time down a chain of boundary clocks; each hop adds its class&#8217;s constant time error and each link half its asymmetry. The end of the chain must hold max|TE| under 1,100 ns.<\/p> <p>T-BC class<\/p> <p>Time error, worst case<\/p> <p>PRTC-A<\/p> <p>100 ns<\/p> <p>4 \u00d7 T-BC cTE<\/p> <p>80 ns<\/p> <p>5 links \u00d7 asym\/2<\/p> <p>100 ns<\/p> <p>Total<\/p> <p>280 ns<\/p> <p>Network limit<\/p> <p>1,100 ns<\/p> <\/article> <article><p><b>07<\/b> \u00b7 Spectrum route<\/p><p>Bands<\/p> <h2>Every band has a route.<\/h2> <p>Before a radio transmits, its band needs a route: a licence, a light licence or an exemption. The ruler lays the bands on a log scale from 400 MHz to 40 GHz, and height marks the route.<\/p> <p>Jurisdiction<\/p> <ul><li><b>Non-competitive local licence (NCL)<\/b> \u00b7 3900\u20133980 MHz Licensed <small>n77<\/small><\/li><li><b>NCL extension at 28 GHz<\/b> \u00b7 27.5\u201328.35 GHz Licensed<\/li><li><b>3500 and 3800 MHz flexible-use (through a licensee)<\/b> \u00b7 3800 MHz band 3650\u20133900 MHz; 3500 MHz band per L10 Licensed <small>n77 \/ n78<\/small><\/li><li><b>Wireless broadband service (WBS)<\/b> \u00b7 3650\u20133700 MHz Closing<\/li><li><b>902\u2013928 MHz licence-exempt (LoRaWAN)<\/b> \u00b7 902\u2013928 MHz Licence-exempt<\/li><li><b>2.4 GHz licence-exempt (Wi-Fi)<\/b> \u00b7 2.4 GHz Licence-exempt<\/li><li><b>6 GHz licence-exempt (RSS-248)<\/b> \u00b7 5925\u20137125 MHz Licence-exempt<\/li><\/ul> <\/article> <article><p><b>08<\/b> \u00b7 Sensors over LPWAN<\/p><p>915 MHz<\/p> <h2>Kilometres on milliwatts.<\/h2> <p>The mast also carries a LoRa gateway for sensors across the valley. Higher spreading factors hear weaker signals and stay longer on air. The map shows every cell in sight of the gateway that closes the link with 3 and 2 dBi antennas and a 10 dB fade margin. In the US, frequency hopping at 902\u2013928 MHz caps each dwell at 400 ms under 47 CFR 15.247, which rules out the slowest spreading factors.<\/p> <p>Spreading factor, 125 kHz<\/p> <dl><dt>Receiver sensitivity<\/dt><dd>\u2013<\/dd> <dt>Maximum path loss<\/dt><dd>\u2013<\/dd> <dt>Area reached<\/dt><dd>\u2013<\/dd> <dt>Time on air, 20 bytes<\/dt><dd>\u2013<\/dd> <dt>US hopping dwell, 400 ms<\/dt><dd>\u2013<\/dd> <\/dl> <\/article> <\/section> <\/main> <footer><p><a href=\"\/\">Nexus Observatory<\/a><b>Connectivity<\/b>. Private 5G, AI-RAN and orbit, on site.<a href=\"\/contact\/\">Talk to us<\/a><\/p><p>Connectivity<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/private-5g\/\">Private 5G<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/ai-ran\/\">AI-RAN<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/o-ran\/\">O-RAN<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/satellite-and-ntn\/\">Satellite and NTN<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/lpwan-and-mesh\/\">LPWAN and mesh<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/timing\/\">Timing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/spectrum\/\">Spectrum<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Technologies<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/ran\/macro-small-cells-das-and-repeaters\/\">Macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/ran\/massive-mimo-and-beamforming\/\">Massive MIMO and beamforming<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/airan\/o-ran-architecture-and-open-interfaces\/\">O-RAN architecture and open interfaces<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/airan\/fronthaul-7-2x-split-and-transport\/\">Fronthaul (7.2x split) and transport<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/core\/5g-core-functions\/\">5G core functions<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/core\/network-slicing-edge-upf-and-local-breakout\/\">Network slicing, edge UPF and local breakout<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/satellite\/orbits-and-constellations\/\">Orbits and constellations<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Industries<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/industries\/public-safety\/\">Public safety<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/government\/\">Government<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/cities\/\">Cities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/resilience\/\">Civil resilience<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/communities\/\">Communities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/humanitarian\/\">Humanitarian<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/climate\/\">Climate<\/a><\/li><\/ul><p>Service platforms<\/p><ul><li><a href=\"\/protocol\/\">Observatory Protocol<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/grid-services\/\">Protocol &amp; Grid<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/software\/\">Software<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/hardware\/\">Hardware &amp; power<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/edge-ai\/\">Edge compute &amp; AI<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI<\/a><\/li><\/ul> <p>\u00a9 2026 Nexus Observatory Inc.<\/p><nav aria-label=\"Legal\"><a href=\"\/legal\/privacy\/\">Privacy<\/a><a href=\"\/legal\/terms\/\">Terms<\/a><a href=\"\/legal\/accessibility\/\">Accessibility<\/a><a href=\"\/privacy-choices\/\">Cookie settings<\/a><a href=\"\/credits\/\">Data credits<\/a><\/nav> <\/footer>\n<\/div><!--\/nxo-ssr--><main>\n<section class=\"story\" id=\"story\" aria-label=\"Interactive connectivity explainer\">\n  <div class=\"stage\" id=\"stage\">\n    <canvas id=\"c\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"3D view of a private 5G site and its coverage on the Bow Valley, Alberta. Drag or use the arrow keys to orbit. In the coverage chapters, click the terrain to move the site.\"><\/canvas>\n    <div class=\"hud\" id=\"hud\"><\/div>\n    <div class=\"loading\" id=\"loading\">Building the site\u2026<\/div>\n    <nav class=\"rail\" id=\"rail\" aria-label=\"Chapters\"><\/nav>\n  <\/div>\n\n  <div class=\"chapters\" id=\"chapters\">\n    <article class=\"ch intro\" data-ch=\"0\" id=\"top\">\n      <div class=\"in\">\n        <div class=\"hrow\"><span class=\"eyebrow\">Connectivity \u00b7 Explainer<\/span><span class=\"badge\">Interactive<\/span><\/div>\n        <h1>One site, eight decisions.<\/h1>\n        <p class=\"lede\">A private 5G and AI-RAN site in the Bow Valley, Alberta, from sector azimuth to the spectrum licence. Move the controls and the radio, the terrain and the orbit answer in real numbers.<\/p>\n        <dl class=\"facts\" id=\"facts\"><\/dl>\n        <nav class=\"toc\" id=\"toc\" aria-label=\"Chapters\"><\/nav>\n      <\/div>\n    <\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"1\" id=\"sectors\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>01<\/b> \u00b7 Sectors<\/span><span class=\"tag\">3 \u00d7 120\u00b0<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>One azimuth plan for every sector.<\/h2>\n      <p>A macro site splits the circle into three sectors of massive-MIMO panels, 120\u00b0 apart, each with a 70\u00b0 half-power beam that falls off as 12(\u03c6\/70\u00b0)\u00b2 dB to a 25 dB floor. The plan turns as one: set sector A and the others follow.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"az\">Sector A boresight<\/label><output id=\"azO\" for=\"az\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"az\" min=\"0\" max=\"119\" step=\"1\" value=\"30\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Boresights A \u00b7 B \u00b7 C<\/dt><dd id=\"r1b\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Half-power beamwidth<\/dt><dd>70\u00b0<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Crossover between sectors<\/dt><dd id=\"r1o\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"2\" id=\"tilt\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>02<\/b> \u00b7 Tilt<\/span><span class=\"tag\">Section<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Tilt decides where the beam lands.<\/h2>\n      <p>The section cuts through sector A, heights stretched tenfold. Downtilt aims the main lobe at the ground at h \/ tan(tilt); the half-power edges of the 10\u00b0 vertical beam, five degrees either side, set the inner and outer rings of strong signal.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"dtilt\">Downtilt<\/label><output id=\"dtiltO\" for=\"dtilt\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"dtilt\" min=\"0\" max=\"12\" step=\"0.5\" value=\"4\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"hant\">Antenna height<\/label><output id=\"hantO\" for=\"hant\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"hant\" min=\"15\" max=\"45\" step=\"1\" value=\"25\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Boresight meets the ground<\/dt><dd id=\"r2m\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Upper half-power edge<\/dt><dd id=\"r2o\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Lower half-power edge<\/dt><dd id=\"r2i\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"3\" id=\"coverage\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>03<\/b> \u00b7 Coverage<\/span><span class=\"tag\">Bow Valley<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>A link budget on real terrain.<\/h2>\n      <p>Every cell the antenna can see gets EIRP plus the sector pattern minus free-space loss, 20&nbsp;log&nbsp;d + 20&nbsp;log&nbsp;f \u2212 147.55&nbsp;dB. Rays run over the valley&#8217;s own relief and the Earth&#8217;s curve; cells in the mountains&#8217; shadow stay dark.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"spL\">Place on<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"spL\" id=\"spre\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"floor\" aria-pressed=\"true\">Valley floor<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"bench\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Valley bench<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"summit\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Highest summit<\/button><\/div><small>Or click the terrain.<\/small><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"bandL\">Band<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"bandL\" id=\"band\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"3500\" aria-pressed=\"true\">n78 \u00b7 3.5 GHz<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"3940\" aria-pressed=\"false\">n77 \u00b7 3.94 GHz<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"26500\" aria-pressed=\"false\">n258 \u00b7 26.5 GHz<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"eirp\">EIRP per sector<\/label><output id=\"eirpO\" for=\"eirp\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"eirp\" min=\"40\" max=\"70\" step=\"1\" value=\"60\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Area above \u2212100 dBm<\/dt><dd id=\"r3a\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Tile in line of sight<\/dt><dd id=\"r3l\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Farthest cell above \u2212100 dBm<\/dt><dd id=\"r3f\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Free-space loss at 1 km<\/dt><dd id=\"r3p\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Site<\/dt><dd id=\"r3s\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n      <div class=\"legend\"><span><svg viewBox=\"0 0 22 12\"><rect x=\"1\" y=\"2\" width=\"20\" height=\"8\" fill=\"#ff1f1f\"\/><\/svg>above \u221285 dBm<\/span><span><svg viewBox=\"0 0 22 12\"><rect x=\"1\" y=\"2\" width=\"20\" height=\"8\" fill=\"#ff8c80\"\/><\/svg>\u221285 to \u2212100<\/span><span><svg viewBox=\"0 0 22 12\"><rect x=\"1\" y=\"2\" width=\"20\" height=\"8\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\"\/><\/svg>\u2212100 to \u2212110<\/span><\/div>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"4\" id=\"airan\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>04<\/b> \u00b7 AI-RAN<\/span><span class=\"tag\">NR slot<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>The radio&#8217;s slot, and what is left for AI.<\/h2>\n      <p>In AI-RAN one pool of accelerators runs the radio&#8217;s Layer 1 and the models. Numerology \u03bc sets 15\u00b72^\u03bc kHz subcarriers and 2^\u03bc slots per millisecond, 14 symbols each. Every slot must finish its L1 work on time; what it leaves idle serves inference.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"muL\">Numerology \u03bc<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"muL\" id=\"mu\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"0\" aria-pressed=\"false\">0 \u00b7 15 kHz<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"1\" aria-pressed=\"true\">1 \u00b7 30 kHz<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"2\" aria-pressed=\"false\">2 \u00b7 60 kHz<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"3\" aria-pressed=\"false\">3 \u00b7 120 kHz<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"load\">L1 load in each slot<\/label><output id=\"loadO\" for=\"load\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"load\" min=\"20\" max=\"95\" step=\"1\" value=\"55\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Slot<\/dt><dd id=\"r4s\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Slots per second<\/dt><dd id=\"r4n\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Symbol with cyclic prefix, mean<\/dt><dd id=\"r4y\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Accelerator time for inference<\/dt><dd id=\"r4f\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"5\" id=\"orbit\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>05<\/b> \u00b7 Backhaul from orbit<\/span><span class=\"tag\">LEO<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>A LEO pass, timed from the orbit.<\/h2>\n      <p>Where fibre stops, the site backhauls through a low-Earth-orbit terminal. Altitude fixes the period, T = 2\u03c0\u221a(a\u00b3\/\u03bc), how long one satellite stays above the terminal&#8217;s elevation mask, and the delay of every hop at the speed of light.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"altL\">Orbit altitude<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"altL\" id=\"alt\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"550\" aria-pressed=\"true\">550 km<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"1200\" aria-pressed=\"false\">1,200 km<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"mask\">Elevation mask<\/label><output id=\"maskO\" for=\"mask\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"mask\" min=\"10\" max=\"60\" step=\"1\" value=\"25\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Orbital period<\/dt><dd id=\"r5p\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Overhead pass above the mask<\/dt><dd id=\"r5d\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Slant range at the mask<\/dt><dd id=\"r5r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>One-way delay, zenith to mask<\/dt><dd id=\"r5l\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"6\" id=\"timing\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>06<\/b> \u00b7 Timing<\/span><span class=\"tag\">PTP<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>One clock, held to the budget.<\/h2>\n      <p>TDD radios share phase. A GNSS-locked grandmaster, a PRTC-A within 100&nbsp;ns, hands time down a chain of boundary clocks; each hop adds its class&#8217;s constant time error and each link half its asymmetry. The end of the chain must hold max|TE| under 1,100&nbsp;ns.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"hops\">Boundary clocks in the chain<\/label><output id=\"hopsO\" for=\"hops\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"hops\" min=\"1\" max=\"10\" step=\"1\" value=\"4\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"clsL\">T-BC class<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"clsL\" id=\"cls\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"50\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Class A \u00b7 50 ns<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"20\" aria-pressed=\"true\">Class B \u00b7 20 ns<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"10\" aria-pressed=\"false\">Class C \u00b7 10 ns<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"asym\">Asymmetry per link<\/label><output id=\"asymO\" for=\"asym\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"asym\" min=\"0\" max=\"200\" step=\"5\" value=\"40\"><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\" style=\"padding-bottom:4px\"><span class=\"lab\">Time error, worst case<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"full bars\" id=\"tbars\"><\/div><\/div>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"7\" id=\"spectrum\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>07<\/b> \u00b7 Spectrum route<\/span><span class=\"tag\">Bands<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Every band has a route.<\/h2>\n      <p>Before a radio transmits, its band needs a route: a licence, a light licence or an exemption. The ruler lays the bands on a log scale from 400&nbsp;MHz to 40&nbsp;GHz, and height marks the route.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"jL\">Jurisdiction<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"jL\" id=\"jur\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"CA\" aria-pressed=\"true\">Canada<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"US\" aria-pressed=\"false\">United States<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <ul class=\"blist\" id=\"blist\"><\/ul>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"8\" id=\"lpwan\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>08<\/b> \u00b7 Sensors over LPWAN<\/span><span class=\"tag\">915 MHz<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Kilometres on milliwatts.<\/h2>\n      <p>The mast also carries a LoRa gateway for sensors across the valley. Higher spreading factors hear weaker signals and stay longer on air. The map shows every cell in sight of the gateway that closes the link with 3 and 2&nbsp;dBi antennas and a 10&nbsp;dB fade margin. In the US, frequency hopping at 902\u2013928&nbsp;MHz caps each dwell at 400&nbsp;ms under 47&nbsp;CFR 15.247, which rules out the slowest spreading factors.<\/p>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><span class=\"lab\" id=\"sfL\">Spreading factor, 125 kHz<\/span><span><\/span><div class=\"seg full sm\" role=\"group\" aria-labelledby=\"sfL\" id=\"sf\"><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"7\" aria-pressed=\"false\">SF7<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"8\" aria-pressed=\"false\">SF8<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"9\" aria-pressed=\"true\">SF9<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"10\" aria-pressed=\"false\">SF10<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"11\" aria-pressed=\"false\">SF11<\/button><button type=\"button\" data-v=\"12\" aria-pressed=\"false\">SF12<\/button><\/div><\/div>\n      <div class=\"ctl\"><label for=\"ptx\">Node transmit power<\/label><output id=\"ptxO\" for=\"ptx\"><\/output><input class=\"full\" type=\"range\" id=\"ptx\" min=\"10\" max=\"30\" step=\"1\" value=\"20\"><\/div>\n      <dl class=\"ro\">\n        <div><dt>Receiver sensitivity<\/dt><dd id=\"r8s\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Maximum path loss<\/dt><dd id=\"r8l\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Area reached<\/dt><dd id=\"r8a\" class=\"r\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>Time on air, 20 bytes<\/dt><dd id=\"r8t\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n        <div><dt>US hopping dwell, 400 ms<\/dt><dd id=\"r8d\">\u2013<\/dd><\/div>\n      <\/dl>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"9\" id=\"scale\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>09<\/b> \u00b7 Scale<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>One radio site, then a network of networks.<\/h2>\n      <p>The smallest unit is one radio site with its backhaul. A campus joins a few sites on one core and one time source; a cluster shares that core across campuses; a region joins clusters over transport, with satellite as the fallback path; the global layer interconnects regions and public networks. The 5G system architecture defines non-public networks that stand alone or are integrated with a public network, so each step reuses the same parts.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>3GPP TS 23.501, System architecture for the 5G System<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"10\" id=\"netops\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>10<\/b> \u00b7 Network operations<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Many sites, one view of the radio.<\/h2>\n      <p>Every radio reports alarms and performance counters to one management plane. Faults, configuration, performance and security are handled as separate management functions, as the telecommunications management network model defines them, and open interfaces let a radio controller tune many sites from the same data. An alarm opens a work order only when remote recovery has failed, so crews travel to the sites that need hands.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>ITU-T M.3400, TMN management functions; O-RAN Alliance, O-RAN Architecture Description<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"11\" id=\"security\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>11<\/b> \u00b7 Security<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>Identity and encryption at every layer.<\/h2>\n      <p>In 5G the device and the network authenticate each other before any traffic flows. The permanent subscriber identifier is concealed over the air, user traffic can be integrity protected as well as encrypted, and the core\u2019s functions authenticate one another. Transport between sites is encrypted, and applications see only the slice they are allowed. The keys live with the network\u2019s owner, not with a supplier.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>3GPP TS 33.501, Security architecture and procedures for 5G system<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n    <article class=\"ch\" data-ch=\"12\" id=\"asks\"><div class=\"card\">\n      <div class=\"hd\"><span class=\"eyebrow\"><b>12<\/b> \u00b7 Buyers\u2019 questions<\/span><\/div>\n      <h2>What to ask before choosing a private network.<\/h2>\n      <p>Which spectrum, under which licence, and for how long? Is coverage measured or modelled, and on which terrain? What availability do backhaul and timing reach, and what happens when either is lost? Who holds the subscriber keys? Can radios and core come from different suppliers through open interfaces? A non-public network can be built standalone or with a public operator, and the answer shapes every other one.<\/p>\n      <p class=\"cite\"><span>Sources<\/span> <span data-no-i18n>3GPP TS 23.501, System architecture for the 5G System; O-RAN Alliance, O-RAN Architecture Description<\/span><\/p>\n    <\/div><\/article>\n  <\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/main><noscript><nav class=\"nxo-related\" aria-labelledby=\"nxo-related-h\"><div class=\"w\"><p class=\"eyebrow\">Across the network<\/p><h2 id=\"nxo-related-h\">Related on Nexus Observatory<\/h2><div class=\"nxo-related-g\"><section><h3>Connectivity<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/\">Connectivity overview<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/private-5g\/\">Private 5G<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/ai-ran\/\">AI-RAN<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/o-ran\/\">O-RAN<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/satellite-and-ntn\/\">Satellite and NTN<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/lpwan-and-mesh\/\">LPWAN and mesh<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/timing\/\">Timing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/spectrum\/\">Spectrum<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/areas\/\">Connectivity: areas<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/technologies\/\">Connectivity: technologies<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/architecture\/\">Connectivity: architecture<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/industries\/\">Connectivity: industries served<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/connectivity\/resources\/\">Connectivity: resources<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Industries served<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/industries\/public-safety\/\">Public safety and emergency management<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/government\/\">Government and national programmes<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/cities\/\">Cities and urban systems<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/resilience\/\">Critical infrastructure and civil resilience<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/communities\/\">Communities, rural and Indigenous connectivity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/humanitarian\/\">Humanitarian and development<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/climate\/\">Climate and atmosphere<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/water\/\">Water and hydrology<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/nature\/\">Forests, land and biodiversity<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/oceans\/\">Oceans, coasts and maritime<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/agriculture\/\">Agriculture and food<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/energy\/\">Energy and utilities<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/telecom\/\">Telecommunications and digital infrastructure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/transport\/\">Transport and logistics<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/infrastructure\/\">Construction and infrastructure assets<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/mining\/\">Mining and resources<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/industry\/\">Manufacturing and industrial sites<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/research\/\">Science and research<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/education\/\">Education and skills<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/health\/\">Health and environmental exposure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/industries\/events\/\">Sports, events and venues<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Technology domains<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/ran\/\">5G and 6G radio access networks<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/airan\/\">AI-RAN and Open RAN<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/core\/\">Core and transport networks<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/satellite\/\">Satellite and space systems<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/ground\/\">Ground segment<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/timing\/\">Spectrum, timing and PNT<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/technologies\/iot\/\">IoT, LPWAN and mesh<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h3>Related platforms<\/h3><ul><li><a href=\"\/protocol\/\">Observatory Protocol<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/sensors\/\">Sensors &amp; instruments<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/field-services\/\">Field services<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/data-products\/\">Data &amp; licensing<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/space\/\">Space and satellite systems<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/earth-observation\/\">Earth observation &amp; GeoAI<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/labs\/\">Frontier labs<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/hardware\/\">Hardware &amp; power<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"\/#lines\">Positioning, navigation and timing<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><\/div><\/div><\/nav><footer class=\"legal\"><div class=\"w\"><div>\u00a9 2026 Nexus Observatory Inc.<\/div><div><b>Legal<\/b><br><a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/privacy\/\">Privacy notice<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/terms\/\">Terms of use<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/cookies\/\">Cookie policy<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/legal\/accessibility\/\">Accessibility<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/official-languages\/\">Official languages<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/notices\/\">Notices<\/a><\/div><div><b>Company<\/b><br><a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/about\/\">About<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/consortium\/\">Open governance<\/a> \u00b7 <a href=\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/contact\/\">Contact<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/footer><\/noscript><\/div>\n<script type=\"application\/json\" id=\"nxo-config\">{\"base\":\"https:\/\/observatory.global\/wp-content\/plugins\/nexus-observatory-pages\/assets\/bundle\/99e42e7aa6ec\/\",\"search\":\"\",\"view\":\"x-connectivity\",\"links\":{\"$comment\":\"Network link map with the industry sites as main-site hubs (docs\/28 option): industry pages under \/industries\/{id}\/, platforms on their subsites. 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