---
title: "Technologies: Connectivity | Nexus Observatory"
description: "Technologies of the Connectivity platform, layer by layer: 5G and 6G radio access networks, AI-RAN and Open RAN, Core and transport networks and Satellite…"
url: https://observatory.global/connectivity/technologies/
publisher: Nexus Observatory Inc.
updated: 2026-11-02
---

[Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/)

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[Connectivity](https://observatory.global/connectivity/)

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**Technologies** 

# The technologies behind connectivity.

Every technology this platform builds with, layer by layer, from the open taxonomy. Marked in red: what is moving now, each traced to its source.

[Plan with us](https://observatory.global/connectivity/contact/deployment/)

[Architecture](https://observatory.global/connectivity/architecture/)

Areas · **7** Technologies · **424** Industries · **21** 

**01** The layered map

## Layer by layer, from the open taxonomy.

Each domain this platform draws on, with its layers and the technologies in each. Open a layer for what each technology does and the standard behind it.

### 5G and 6G radio access networks

The radio access network from site to spectrum: macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters, massive MIMO, NR bands and TDD synchronisation, NR features such as RedCap, positioning and sidelink, private and shared networks, Wi-Fi coexistence, 6G and ISAC, and the planning and assurance that keep it working.

[The full directory →](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/)

### [Macro, small cells, DAS and repeaters](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/macro-small-cells-das-and-repeaters/)

Technologies · 9

- Macro sites
- Small cells
- Distributed antenna systems
- Repeaters and network-controlled repeaters
- Integrated access and backhaul
- Public-safety in-building coverage
- Rapid-deploy and transportable cells
- Site engineering and structures
- RF exposure assessment

### [Massive MIMO and beamforming](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/massive-mimo-and-beamforming/)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 2

- Massive MIMO active antenna systems
- Beam management
- CSI feedback and codebooks
- Multi-user and uplink MIMO
- Passive and multiband antennas
- Distributed and cell-free MIMO
- Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces

### [NR bands, duplexing and synchronisation](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/nr-bands-duplexing-and-synchronisation/)

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 2

- FR1 mid-band TDD (n77, n78)
- FR1 low-band FDD
- FR2 millimetre wave (n257, n258, n260, n261)
- FR2-2 (52.6–71 GHz)
- Upper 6 GHz and 7–8 GHz candidate bands
- TDD frame alignment and inter-operator synchronisation
- Carrier aggregation and dual connectivity
- Dynamic spectrum sharing
- NR in unlicensed spectrum (NR-U)

### [NR features: RedCap, positioning, sidelink and verticals](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/nr-features-redcap-positioning-sidelink-and-verticals/)

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

- RedCap and enhanced RedCap
- NR positioning
- Sidelink (PC5)
- Sidelink positioning and ranging
- URLLC and industrial IoT
- NR multicast and broadcast
- Support for aerial devices
- Mission-critical services
- Ambient IoT

### [Private networks and RAN sharing](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/private-networks-and-ran-sharing/)

Technologies · 7

- Standalone non-public networks (SNPN)
- Public network integrated NPN (PNI-NPN)
- Neutral host networks
- RAN sharing (MORAN and MOCN)
- Industrial 5G LAN and TSN integration
- Shared and local spectrum for private networks
- Private network onboarding and identity

### [Wi-Fi coexistence and convergence](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/wi-fi-coexistence-and-convergence/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

- Wi-Fi 6E (IEEE 802.11ax in 6 GHz)
- Wi-Fi 7 (IEEE 802.11be)
- Automated frequency coordination
- NR-U and Wi-Fi coexistence
- Wi-Fi integration with the 5G core
- Multi-access traffic steering (ATSSS)
- Wi-Fi sensing
- Ultra-high reliability Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi 8)

### [6G and integrated sensing and communication](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/6g-and-integrated-sensing-and-communication/)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 7

- IMT-2030 framework
- 3GPP 6G studies
- Integrated sensing and communication (ISAC)
- AI-native air interface
- Sub-terahertz links
- Ubiquitous terrestrial and non-terrestrial coverage
- Energy-efficient and sustainable 6G

### [RAN planning, optimisation and assurance](https://observatory.global/technologies/ran/ran-planning-optimisation-and-assurance/)

Technologies · 6

- Radio planning and propagation modelling
- Drive testing and minimisation of drive tests
- Self-organising networks
- Performance measurement and KPIs
- Base station and device conformance testing
- Licence conditions and coverage reporting

### AI-RAN and Open RAN

Disaggregated, software-defined and AI-assisted radio access: the O-RAN architecture and its open interfaces, 7.2x fronthaul, RAN intelligent controllers with xApps and rApps, SMO and O-Cloud, accelerated L1, shared GPU infrastructure for RAN and AI, AI/ML in the 3GPP air interface, energy saving, and the test and integration work that makes multi-supplier RAN deployable.

[The full directory →](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/)

### [O-RAN architecture and open interfaces](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/o-ran-architecture-and-open-interfaces/)

Technologies · 7

- O-RAN reference architecture
- O-RU (radio unit)
- O-DU (distributed unit)
- O-CU (central unit, CP and UP)
- Open F1, E1, X2 and Xn interoperability
- Shared O-RU and multi-operator Open RAN
- Deployment scenarios and white-box hardware

### [Fronthaul (7.2x split) and transport](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/fronthaul-7-2x-split-and-transport/)

Technologies · 8

- 7.2x lower-layer split, CUS-Plane
- Fronthaul management plane
- eCPRI and radio over Ethernet
- Time-sensitive networking for fronthaul
- Fronthaul synchronisation topologies (LLS-C1 to C4)
- Fronthaul security
- Fronthaul multiplexers and gateways
- Xhaul packet-switched transport

### [RAN intelligent controllers, xApps and rApps](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/ran-intelligent-controllers-xapps-and-rapps/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

- Near-real-time RIC and E2
- E2 service models
- xApps
- Non-real-time RIC and A1
- rApps and the R1 interface
- Conflict mitigation between applications
- RIC use cases
- Real-time control at the DU (dApps)

### [SMO, O-Cloud and accelerated L1](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/smo-o-cloud-and-accelerated-l1/)

Technologies · 8

- Service management and orchestration (SMO)
- O1 management interface
- O-Cloud and the O2 interface
- Cloud-native RAN functions
- Acceleration abstraction layer (AAL)
- Channel coding and FEC offload
- Timing in the O-Cloud
- Continuous integration and delivery for RAN software

### [AI-RAN: shared accelerated infrastructure](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/ai-ran-shared-accelerated-infrastructure/)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 5

- AI-for-RAN
- AI-and-RAN (shared GPU for RAN and AI)
- AI-on-RAN (edge AI services on RAN sites)
- Software-defined L1 on GPUs
- RAN-first workload scheduling
- Isolation between RAN and AI tenants
- AI-RAN site power and cooling

### [AI/ML in the air interface and network management](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/ai-ml-in-the-air-interface-and-network-management/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

- AI/ML for CSI feedback
- AI/ML beam management
- AI/ML positioning
- AI/ML for NG-RAN functions
- AI/ML model lifecycle management
- Network data analytics
- O-RAN AI/ML workflow
- 5G system support for AI/ML applications

### [Energy saving and efficiency](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/energy-saving-and-efficiency/)

Technologies · 6

- Network energy saving features
- Carrier and cell switch-off by policy
- Base station energy measurement
- Network energy efficiency KPIs
- Site power systems
- Massive MIMO and power amplifier optimisation

### [Testing, integration and security](https://observatory.global/technologies/airan/testing-integration-and-security/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

- Open testing and integration centre labs
- Conformance testing
- Interoperability testing
- End-to-end performance testing
- RAN security testing
- RF and channel emulation
- RAN digital twins
- Software supply chain for RAN

### Core and transport networks

The networks behind the radio: the 5G core and its functions, slicing and edge breakout, IMS voice and emergency calling, fronthaul, midhaul and backhaul over microwave, E-band, fibre, free-space optics and satellite, IP/MPLS and segment routing, IPv6, automation and intent, and the security that holds it together.

[The full directory →](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/)

### [5G core functions](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/5g-core-functions/)

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1

- Access and mobility management (AMF)
- Session management (SMF)
- User plane function (UPF) and N4
- Service-based architecture and NRF
- Policy control (PCF)
- Subscriber data and authentication (UDM, AUSF, UDR)
- Network exposure (NEF) and network APIs
- Location services (LMF)
- Roaming and interconnect security (SEPP)
- 6G core architecture studies

### [Network slicing, edge UPF and local breakout](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/network-slicing-edge-upf-and-local-breakout/)

Technologies · 8

- Slice selection and identifiers
- Slice management and orchestration
- Slice templates
- Transport network slicing
- Edge UPF, uplink classifier and branching point
- Local breakout and local area data networks
- Edge application enablement
- Slice and service assurance

### [IMS, voice and mission-critical services](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/ims-voice-and-mission-critical-services/)

Technologies · 6

- IMS core
- Voice over NR and voice over LTE
- Emergency calling and next-generation 9-1-1
- Mission-critical push-to-talk, video and data
- Messaging and SMS over 5G
- Voice and messaging over satellite

### [Fronthaul, midhaul and backhaul](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/fronthaul-midhaul-and-backhaul/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

- Transport requirements for 5G xhaul
- Carrier Ethernet mobile backhaul
- Licensed microwave (6–42 GHz)
- E-band (71–76 and 81–86 GHz)
- D-band and W-band radio
- Free-space optics
- Satellite backhaul for RAN
- Aerial relays for backhaul

### [Fibre and optical transport](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/fibre-and-optical-transport/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

- Single-mode fibre plant
- Passive optical networks
- DWDM and ROADM networks
- Optical transport network (OTN)
- Coherent pluggable optics
- High-speed Ethernet interfaces
- Outside plant for northern and remote builds
- Distributed fibre sensing

### [IP/MPLS, segment routing, SD-WAN and IPv6](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/ip-mpls-segment-routing-sd-wan-and-ipv6/)

Technologies · 8

- MPLS and VPN services
- Segment routing over MPLS
- SRv6
- Traffic engineering and path computation
- SD-WAN
- IPv6 and transition mechanisms
- Deterministic networking
- Routing security

### [Network automation and intent](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/network-automation-and-intent/)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 1

- Model-driven management
- Streaming telemetry and flow export
- Intent-based management
- Zero-touch service management
- Closed-loop assurance
- Autonomous network levels
- Network digital twins

### [Core security and resilience](https://observatory.global/technologies/core/core-security-and-resilience/)

Technologies · 5 · Frontier · 1

- 5G security architecture
- Security assurance of network products
- Zero trust architecture
- Restoration and geo-redundancy
- Post-quantum cryptography migration

### Satellite and space systems

The space segment end to end: orbits and constellations, spacecraft buses, communications and Earth observation payloads, inter-satellite links, tracking and command, space safety, launch, and the licensing and filings that let a system operate over a site.

[The full directory →](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/)

### [Orbits and constellations](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/orbits-and-constellations/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

- LEO broadband constellations
- MEO constellations
- GEO high-throughput satellites
- HEO (Molniya and Tundra-type) orbits
- Sun-synchronous and polar orbits for EO
- Constellation design and coverage analysis
- HAPS and HIBS stratospheric platforms
- Very low Earth orbit (VLEO)

### [Spacecraft buses and platforms](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/spacecraft-buses-and-platforms/)

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

- Smallsat and CubeSat platforms
- Electrical power subsystems
- Attitude and orbit control
- Propulsion (chemical, electric, low-toxicity)
- On-board data handling and avionics buses
- Thermal control and structures
- Radiation effects and EEE parts
- Environmental verification
- Flight software and software-defined satellites

### [Communications payloads, NTN and direct-to-device](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/communications-payloads-ntn-and-direct-to-device/)

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 3

- Transparent (bent-pipe) payloads
- Regenerative payloads and on-board processing
- Multibeam and digitally beamformed payloads
- 5G NR over satellite (NR-NTN)
- IoT over satellite (NB-IoT and LTE-M NTN)
- Direct-to-device in mobile bands
- Mobile satellite services in L and S band
- Store-and-forward satellite IoT
- Satellite broadcast and multicast

### [Inter-satellite and space-to-ground links](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/inter-satellite-and-space-to-ground-links/)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 4

- RF inter-satellite links
- Optical inter-satellite links
- Optical space-to-ground links
- Pointing, acquisition and tracking
- Space networking and delay-tolerant routing
- GEO data relay for LEO missions
- Space-based quantum key distribution

### [Earth observation payload classes](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/earth-observation-payload-classes/)

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1

- Multispectral optical imagers
- Hyperspectral imagers
- Synthetic aperture radar (X, C, L band)
- Thermal infrared and fire detection
- Atmospheric and greenhouse gas sounders
- GNSS radio occultation and reflectometry
- Space-based AIS and ADS-B reception
- RF spectrum sensing from orbit
- Lidar and radar altimetry
- On-board processing and AI for EO

### [Tracking, telemetry and command and space safety](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/tracking-telemetry-and-command-and-space-safety/)

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

- TT&C radio links
- Telemetry and telecommand protocols
- Ranging and orbit determination
- Space link security
- Conjunction assessment and collision avoidance
- Space situational awareness sensing
- Space weather monitoring
- Debris mitigation and end-of-life disposal
- Rendezvous, proximity operations and on-orbit servicing

### [Launch, licensing and regulation](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/launch-licensing-and-regulation/)

Technologies · 8

- Launch and rideshare integration
- ITU filings: advance publication, coordination, notification
- NGSO–GSO sharing and EPFD
- Landing rights and market access
- Remote sensing licensing
- International space law and registration
- Export controls for space items
- Space sustainability frameworks

### [Frontier and research](https://observatory.global/technologies/satellite/frontier-and-research/)

Technologies · 6 · Frontier · 6

- 6G integrated terrestrial and non-terrestrial networks
- Orbital edge computing
- Lunar and cislunar communications and navigation
- Autonomous constellation operations
- Space-based solar power
- In-space assembly and manufacturing

### Ground segment

Everything on the ground that talks to spacecraft: gateways and teleports, user terminals, modems and software-defined radio, shared antenna networks, CCSDS protocol stacks, mission control, data processing and the spectrum coordination behind each earth station.

[The full directory →](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/)

### [Gateways and teleports](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/gateways-and-teleports/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

- NGSO gateway sites
- GEO teleports and hub earth stations
- RF chain: LNA, LNB, BUC and high-power amplifiers
- Site diversity and rain-fade mitigation
- Adaptive coding and modulation
- Teleport facilities, power and lightning protection
- Gateway-to-core interconnection
- Optical ground stations

### [User terminals](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/user-terminals/)

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 1

- Electronically steered flat-panel terminals
- Parabolic VSAT terminals
- Maritime terminals
- Aeronautical terminals
- Land-mobile and communications-on-the-move
- IoT and low-power satellite terminals
- Multi-orbit and hybrid terrestrial terminals
- Terminal installation and electrical safety
- Handheld and smartphone satellite access

### [Baseband, modems and software-defined radio](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/baseband-modems-and-software-defined-radio/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

- DVB-S2 and DVB-S2X forward links
- DVB-RCS2 return links
- CCSDS modulation and channel coding
- Software-defined radio platforms
- Digital IF and RF-over-IP
- Virtualised and cloud-native modems
- Carrier identification
- NTN gNB and core functions at gateways

### [Ground-station-as-a-service and antenna networks](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/ground-station-as-a-service-and-antenna-networks/)

Technologies · 7

- Shared antenna networks
- Space link extension services
- Pass scheduling and resource management
- High-latitude and polar ground sites
- Ground segment cybersecurity
- Federated and hybrid ground networks
- Data delivery to cloud and edge

### [CCSDS protocol stacks](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/ccsds-protocol-stacks/)

Technologies · 9

- Synchronisation and channel coding
- Space data link protocols
- Space packets and encapsulation
- File delivery
- Delay and disruption tolerant networking
- Space data link security
- Telemetry and command databases
- Navigation data messages
- Data compression

### [Mission control and flight dynamics](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/mission-control-and-flight-dynamics/)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 1

- Mission control systems
- Flight dynamics
- Constellation operations automation
- Payload planning and tasking
- Anomaly detection and spacecraft health analytics
- Operations security and access control
- Operational simulators and digital twins

### [Data downlink, processing and distribution](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/data-downlink-processing-and-distribution/)

Technologies · 8

- Level-0 to Level-2 processing chains
- Analysis-ready data production
- Catalogues and discovery
- Cloud-native geospatial formats
- Calibration and validation
- Low-latency tasking-to-delivery pipelines
- Data licensing and access control
- Processing at the antenna edge

### [Earth station spectrum coordination and interference](https://observatory.global/technologies/ground/earth-station-spectrum-coordination-and-interference/)

Technologies · 7 · Frontier · 1

- Earth station licensing and coordination
- NGSO–GSO interference analysis
- Propagation modelling
- Interference detection and geolocation
- Cross-border coordination
- Protection of radio astronomy and science services
- Satellite and terrestrial spectrum sharing

### Spectrum, timing and PNT

The shared foundations every network and sensor depends on: how spectrum is licensed, shared and monitored, GNSS positioning and its corrections, packet timing with PTP and SyncE, grandmasters and holdover, resilient PNT alternatives, and the detection of interference, jamming and spoofing.

[The full directory →](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/)

### [Spectrum regimes and access](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/spectrum-regimes-and-access/)

Technologies · 9

- Exclusive licensed spectrum
- Tiered shared access (CBRS-type)
- Local and light licensing
- Licence-exempt bands
- TV white space and database-controlled access
- Spectrum for fixed links
- Spectrum for satellite services
- Spectrum for science and passive sensing
- Spectrum leasing and subordination

### [Spectrum monitoring and interference management](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/spectrum-monitoring-and-interference-management/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 2

- Fixed, transportable and mobile monitoring stations
- Spectrum occupancy measurement
- Emitter location (TDOA and angle of arrival)
- Interference investigation and reporting
- Distributed low-cost SDR sensor networks
- Passive intermodulation and site noise
- Machine-learning signal classification
- Satellite carrier interference detection

### [GNSS positioning and augmentation](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/gnss-positioning-and-augmentation/)

Technologies · 9

- Multi-constellation, multi-frequency receivers
- RTK networks and NTRIP
- PPP and PPP-RTK
- Satellite-based augmentation (SBAS)
- Ground-based augmentation (GBAS)
- Geodetic reference frames
- Assisted GNSS in cellular networks
- Reference stations and GNSS data formats
- Navigation message authentication

### [Packet timing: PTP, SyncE and NTP](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/packet-timing-ptp-synce-and-ntp/)

Technologies · 10 · Frontier · 1

- Precision Time Protocol
- Telecom profile with full timing support
- Telecom profile with partial timing support
- Frequency synchronisation profile
- Synchronous Ethernet and enhanced SyncE
- Time and phase network limits
- Industry PTP profiles
- Sub-nanosecond timing (high-accuracy profile)
- NTP and Network Time Security
- Timing protocol security

### [Grandmasters, reference clocks and holdover](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/grandmasters-reference-clocks-and-holdover/)

Technologies · 7

- PRTC and enhanced PRTC
- Primary reference clocks for frequency
- Atomic and quartz oscillators
- Holdover design
- Timing performance monitoring
- Traceability to national time scales
- Edge and distributed grandmasters

### [Resilient PNT](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/resilient-pnt/)

Technologies · 9 · Frontier · 3

- Resilient PNT frameworks
- Terrestrial radionavigation (eLoran-type)
- Time over fibre
- Terrestrial beacon systems
- 5G as a timing source
- Inertial and multi-sensor navigation
- LEO PNT
- Optical clocks and quantum navigation sensors
- Signals-of-opportunity navigation

### [Interference, jamming and spoofing detection](https://observatory.global/technologies/timing/interference-jamming-and-spoofing-detection/)

Technologies · 7

- GNSS interference monitoring
- Spoofing detection
- Jammer location to support enforcement
- Timing anomaly detection
- Interference-resistant antennas
- Aviation and maritime GNSS disruption awareness
- Red line: no jamming or spoofing capability

### IoT, LPWAN and mesh

The radios, networks, gateways, device management and field protocols that connect low-power sensors and controllers to the grid, sized to a measured power budget.

[The full directory →](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/)

### [Low-power wide-area networks](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/low-power-wide-area-networks/)

Technologies · 9

- LoRaWAN
- LoRaWAN Regional Parameters
- LR-FHSS and LoRaWAN relay
- NB-IoT and LTE-M
- Power saving mode and eDRX
- 5G RedCap and eRedCap
- Telegram-splitting ultra-narrowband
- Wi-SUN field area networks
- Wireless meter bus

### [Satellite IoT and non-terrestrial networks](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/satellite-iot-and-non-terrestrial-networks/)

Technologies · 6 · Frontier · 3

- NB-IoT and LTE-M over satellite (IoT-NTN)
- Store-and-forward satellite IoT
- NR NTN and direct-to-device
- LoRa-class links to satellites
- Mobile-satellite messaging terminals
- Satellite terminal licensing

### [Local networks and mesh](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/local-networks-and-mesh/)

Technologies · 8 · Frontier · 1

- Wi-Fi HaLow
- IEEE 802.15.4 radios
- Thread
- Matter
- Bluetooth Low Energy and Bluetooth Mesh
- 6LoWPAN
- Mesh routing protocols
- Wi-Fi sensing

### [Gateways and edge](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/gateways-and-edge/)

Technologies · 6

- LPWAN gateways and network servers
- Multi-radio edge gateways
- Store-and-forward and delay-tolerant networking
- Time synchronisation
- Backhaul selection and failover
- Protocol translation at the edge

### [Device management and onboarding](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/device-management-and-onboarding/)

Technologies · 6

- Lightweight M2M device management
- User services platform
- Firmware updates over the air
- Zero-touch onboarding
- Fleet inventory and configuration baselines
- Enrolment on the Observatory Protocol grid

### [Field and application protocols](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/field-and-application-protocols/)

Technologies · 9

- MQTT
- Sparkplug
- CoAP
- OSCORE and EDHOC
- OPC UA
- Modbus RTU and TCP
- SDI-12
- DNP3 and IEC 61850
- Compact payload encodings

### [Power budgets and energy](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/power-budgets-and-energy/)

Technologies · 5

- Duty-cycle and airtime limits
- Energy budget modelling
- Device classes and listening modes
- Energy harvesting
- Supercapacitor buffering

### [Frontier and research](https://observatory.global/technologies/iot/frontier-and-research/)

Technologies · 5 · Frontier · 5

- Ambient IoT
- Ambient power Wi-Fi
- Backscatter communication
- Tiny machine learning on sensors
- LoRaWAN in the 2.4 GHz band

**02** Across the network

## The whole spectrum, on the main site.

[Main site Every technology domainAll domains, layers and items, with their sources.Open →](https://observatory.global/technologies/)

[Main site The spectrumThe technologies of observation on one map.Open →](https://observatory.global/spectrum/)

[Observatory Protocol StandardsThe open standards the protocol is composed from.Open →](https://observatory.global/protocol/standards/)

**03** On this site

## Where to go next.

[Connectivity AreasEvery area, with its systems and standards.Open →](https://observatory.global/connectivity/areas/)

[Connectivity ArchitectureLayers, functions and evidence.Open →](https://observatory.global/connectivity/architecture/)

[Connectivity IndustriesThe industry sites built on this platform.Open →](https://observatory.global/connectivity/industries/)

[Connectivity ResourcesExplainer, stories, specification and forms.Open →](https://observatory.global/connectivity/resources/)

## Bring us the site.

We bring the survey, the design and the crew. The form names who receives your details.

[Plan a deployment](https://observatory.global/connectivity/contact/deployment/)

[Contact](https://observatory.global/connectivity/contact/)

[Nexus Observatory](https://observatory.global/)**Connectivity** . Private 5G, AI-RAN and orbit, on site.[Talk to us](https://observatory.global/contact/)

Connectivity

- [Overview](https://observatory.global/connectivity/)
- [Explainer](https://observatory.global/connectivity/explainer/)
- [Areas](https://observatory.global/connectivity/areas/)
- [Technologies](https://observatory.global/connectivity/technologies/)
- [Architecture](https://observatory.global/connectivity/architecture/)
- [Industries](https://observatory.global/connectivity/industries/)
- [Resources](https://observatory.global/connectivity/resources/)
- [Contact](https://observatory.global/connectivity/contact/)

Platforms

- [Observatory Protocol](https://observatory.global/protocol/)
- [Protocol & Grid](https://observatory.global/grid-services/)
- [Software](https://observatory.global/software/)
- [Hardware & power](https://observatory.global/hardware/)
- [Sensors & instruments](https://observatory.global/sensors/)
- [Connectivity](https://observatory.global/connectivity/)
- [Edge compute & AI](https://observatory.global/edge-ai/)
- [Earth observation & GeoAI](https://observatory.global/earth-observation/)
- [Space and satellite systems](https://observatory.global/space/)
- [Digital twins and simulation](https://observatory.global/digital-twins/)
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Solutions

- [Early warning](https://observatory.global/use-cases/street-flood/)
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Industries

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Products

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Resources

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